Maxakalían languages
Language family of eastern Brazil
title: "Maxakalían languages" type: doc version: 1 created: 2026-02-28 author: "Wikipedia contributors" status: active scope: public tags: ["maxakalían-languages", "nuclear-macro-jê-languages", "indigenous-languages-of-south-america-(central)", "indigenous-languages-of-eastern-brazil"] description: "Language family of eastern Brazil" topic_path: "linguistics" source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maxakalían_languages" license: "CC BY-SA 4.0" wikipedia_page_id: 0 wikipedia_revision_id: 0
::summary Language family of eastern Brazil ::
::data[format=table title="Infobox language family"]
| Field | Value |
|---|---|
| name | Maxakalían |
| region | Brazil |
| familycolor | macro-je |
| fam1 | Macro-Jê |
| glotto | maxa1246 |
| glottorefname | Maxakalian |
| map | Maxkali languages.png |
| mapcaption | Distrubution of Maxakalian languages among the Macro-Jê family |
| child1 | Nuclear Maxakalí |
| child2 | Malali |
| fam2 | Trans-São Francisco |
| map2 | Maxakali language map.svg |
| mapcaption2 | Map of the Maxakalian languages (excluding Koropo) |
| altname | Mashakalian |
| :: |
| name = Maxakalían | region = Brazil | familycolor = macro-je | fontcolor = white | fam1 = Macro-Jê | glotto = maxa1246 | glottorefname = Maxakalian | map = Maxkali languages.png | mapcaption = Distrubution of Maxakalian languages among the Macro-Jê family | child1 = Nuclear Maxakalí :Maxakali :Kapoxó : / Cumanaxo : :Monoxo/ Monachobm/Menacho :Makoni :Pataxó :Hahaháy :Koropo | child2 = Malali | child3 = | fam2 = Trans-São Francisco | map2 = Maxakali language map.svg | mapcaption2 = Map of the Maxakalian languages (excluding Koropo) | altname = Mashakalian
The Maxakalían languages (also Mashakalían) are a group of related indigenous languages of Brazil, named after Maxakalí, the one surviving language in the group. Many of the other, extinct, languages are poorly attested and linguists differ in the languages they identify as part of the group. The Maxakalían group is today usually considered part of the Macro-Jê language family.
Maxakalían languages were first classified into the Jê languages. It was only in 1931 that Čestmír Loukotka separated them from the Jê family. Alfred Métraux and Curt Nimuendajú considered the Maxakalían family isolated from others. John Alden Mason suggests a connection with the Macro-Jê stock, confirmed by Aryon Rodrigues.
Languages
Apart from extinct varieties generally seen as dialects of Maxakalí, Mason noted resemblances with a few other extinct languages of the area: Pataxó, Malalí and Coropó. However, Coropó was formerly sometimes thought to be a Purian language. Campbell (1997) therefore lists the Maxakalian languages as:
- Malalí (†)
- Pataxó (Patashó) (†) (retain some words, revival movement)
- Maxakalí (Mashacalí) (1,270 speakers)
- Eschwege (2002: 122–127), 127 words collected in 1815
- Schott (1822, pp. 48–51), 55 words collected in 1818-- Glottolog (2016) restores Coropó (Koropó) as a Maxakalían language.
Nikulin (2020)
Nikulin (2020) proposes the following internal classification of the Maxakalían languages:
;Maxakalí
- Malalí
- Nuclear Maxakalí
Maxakalí is a sister of Krenák and possibly also Kamakã. Together, they form a Trans-São Francisco branch within the Macro-Jê language phylum in Nikulin's (2020) classification.
Ramirez (2015)
Internal classification of the Maxakali languages according to Ramirez, et al. (2015):
- Malali
- Maxakali-Pataxó
Currently, Maxakali (excluding Old Machacari) is the only living language, while all other languages are extinct.
Pataxó as documented by Prince Maximilian of Wied-Neuwied (1989: 510–511) in 1816 is distinct from Pataxó-Hãhãhãe. Pataxó-Hãhãhãe was spoken into the 20th century and has been documented by Meader (1978: 45–50), Loukotka (1963: 32–33), and Silva & Rodrigues (1982).
Many Maxakalian varieties are attested only from 19th-century word lists, some of which are:
- Mashacari (A.St-Hil, 2000: 274; Wied, 1989: 509–510) [collected in 1816–1817]
- Kapoxó (Martius, 1863: 170–172) [collected in 1818]
- Monoxó (Saint-Hilaire, 2000: 181) [collected in 1817]
- Makoni (Saint-Hilaire, 2000: 212; Martius, 1863: 173–176; Wied, 1989: 512–513) [collected in 1816–1818]
- Malali (Saint-Hilaire, 2000: 181; Martius, 1863: 207–208; Wied, 1989: 511–512) [collected in 1816–1818]
Loukotka (1968)
Below is a full list of Mashakali languages and dialects listed by Loukotka (1968), including names of unattested varieties.
;Western
- Mashakali / Maxacari – language once spoken in the state of Minas Gerais on the Marucí River and Jucurucu River, later on the Belmonte River.
- Kaposho / Capoxo – once spoken on the Araçuaí River.
- Kumanasho / Cumanaxo – extinct language originally spoken on the Suaçuí Grande River, state of Minas Gerais, later at the sources of the Gravatá River, state of Bahia.
- Moakañi – once spoken on the Fanado River (Panado River) near Conceição, later on the Caravelas River. (Unattested)
- Pañáme – once spoken on the Suaçuí Pequeno River, Minas Gerais.
- Monoxo / Monachobm / Menacho – originally spoken on the Itanhaém River and now on the Posto Paraguaçu, state of Bahia.
- Makoni – formerly spoken on the Caravelas River and near Alto dos Bois.
- Paraxirn – once spoken on the Suaçuí Pequeno River. (Unattested)
- Bonitó – once spoken on the Suaçuí Grande River near Peçanha and Bonito. (Unattested)
- Goaña – once spoken on the Corrente River and Guanhães River. (Unattested)
- Malacaxi – extinct language between Malacacheta and Urupuca (near Água Boa, Minas Gerais). (Unattested)
- Mapoxo – formerly spoken on the Suaçuí Grande River. (Unattested)
- Xonin – once spoken between the Peçanha River, Figueira River, and Doce River. (Unattested)
- Moxotó – extinct language once spoken on the Suaçuí Grande River and Suaçuí Pequeno River near Peçanha. (Unattested)
- Toréjicana – once spoken between the Araçuaí River and Fanado River. (Unattested)
- Vocoin – once spoken between the Araçuaí River and Jequitinhonha River. (Unattested)
- Batum – once spoken between the Doce River and Conceição River. (Unattested)
;Eastern
- Patasho – originally spoken between the Jequitinhonha River and São Francisco River in the state of Minas Gerais; the last survivors became extinct on the right shore of the Jequitinhonha River, Espirito Santo.
- Tocoyó – extinct language originally spoken in the valley of the Araçuaí River and near Minas Novas de Fanado in the state of Minas Gerais, later on the right bank of the Jequitinhonha River in the state of Espirito Santo. (Unattested)
- Maquinuca – once spoken near the Salto Grande on the Jequitinhonha River. (Unattested)
- Canarin – once spoken on the Caravelas River and Mucuri River, state of Espirito Santo. (Unattested)
- Tucanuçú – once spoken south of the Jequitinhonha River near Campos de Caatinga. (Unattested)
- Aboninim – once spoken in the state of Minas Gerais in the Serra Geral do Espinhaço. (Unattested)
- Catiguasú – once spoken in the state of Minas Gerais between the Jequitinhonha River and São Francisco River. (Unattested)
- Hahaháy – spoken in the state of Bahia on the Cachoeira River.
;Southern
- Malali – extinct language formerly spoken in the Serra Redonda and on the Suaçuí Pequeno River, Minas Gerais.
- Zamplan – once spoken on the Doce River and at the sources of the Piracicaba River. (Unattested)
Mason (1950)
Mason (1950) lists:
;Mashacalí
- Caposhó (Koposǒ)
- Cumanashó (Kumanaxó)
- Macuní (Makoni)
- Mashacalí (Maxakarí)
- Monoshó (Monoxó)
- Panyame (Paname)
Vocabulary
Loukotka (1968) lists the following basic vocabulary items for the Mashakali languages.
::data[format=table]
| gloss | Mashakali | Kaposho | Kumanasho | Pañáme | Monoxo | Makoni | Patasho | Hahaháy | Malali | three | head | tooth | hand | water | fire | sun | earth | tree | eat |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| hebü-hoe | etíg | hatig | mounghí | ||||||||||||||||
| i-toñanü | patañon | patañon | epo-toy | ap-tówe | epo-toi | at-patoy | mu-huháy | akä | |||||||||||
| tsoʔoi | shuoi | shuoi | shuoy | a-chówe | eti-öy | ãn-chu | ayó | ||||||||||||
| ñimkotoi | nipeoto | añibktän | añeːm | ini-mankó | aham | ayimké | |||||||||||||
| konahan | konaʔan | kunaʔan | konaʔan | koanʔá | konam | tiäng | naha | xexe | |||||||||||
| kó | ká | kesham | kesham | kicháu | kö | köa | itahábm | kuyá | |||||||||||
| apokai | apukoi | apukoi | apukoy | maĩuá | abkay | mayon | manochiá | hapem | |||||||||||
| hahám | aʔam | aʔam | haʔam | hahám | aʔam | aham | hahám | am | |||||||||||
| abaʔai | abaʔai | abaʔai | abaʔay | mihiːn | aboʔoi | mihim | mihná | ||||||||||||
| tomon | vemán | tigman | ĩmá | nasit | oknikenang | komá | |||||||||||||
| :: |
References
Bibliography
- Campbell, Lyle. (1997). American Indian languages: The Historical Linguistics of Native America. New York: Oxford University Press. .
- Kaufman, Terrence. (1990). Language history in South America: What We Know and How to Know More. In D. L. Payne (Ed.), Amazonian Linguistics: Studies in Lowland South American Languages (pp. 13–67). Austin: University of Texas Press. .
- Kaufman, Terrence. (1994). The Native Languages of South America. In C. Mosley & R. E. Asher (Eds.), Atlas of the World's Languages (pp. 46–76). London: Routledge.
References
- Some listed as alternative names in {{ISO 639. mbl
- Ramirez, H., Vegini, V., & França, M. C. V. de. (2015). [https://periodicos.sbu.unicamp.br/ojs/index.php/liames/article/download/8642302/19659/ Koropó, puri, kamakã e outras línguas do Leste Brasileiro]. ''LIAMES: Línguas Indígenas Americanas'', 15(2), 223 - 277. {{doi. 10.20396/liames.v15i2.8642302
- Schott, Heinrich Wilhelm. 1822. ''Tagebücher des K.K. Gärtners in Brasilien''. vol. 2. Brünn.
- Nikulin, Andrey. 2020. ''[http://etnolinguistica.org/local--files/tese%3Anikulin-2020/Nikulin_2020_Proto-Macro-Je.pdf Proto-Macro-Jê: um estudo reconstrutivo]''. Doctoral dissertation, University of Brasília.
- Wied, Maximilian Alexander Philipp, Prinz von. 1989. ''Viagem ao Brasil nos anos de 1815 a 1817''. Belo Horizonte: Editora Itatiaia.
- Meader, Robert E.. (1978). "Indios do Nordeste: Levantamento sobre os remanescentes tribais do nordeste brasileiro". [[SIL International]].
- Loukotka, Čestmir. 1963. "Documents et vocabulaires de langues et de dialectes sud-américains", ''Journal de la Société des Américanistes'', Paris, vol. 52, pp. 7–60.
- Silva, Aracy Lopes da & Maria Carolina Young Rodrigues. 1982. ''Lições de Bahetá: sobre a língua Pataxó-Hãhãhãi''. São Paulo: Commissão Pró-Índio de São Paulo.
- Saint-Hilaire, Auguste de. 2000. ''Viagem pelas províncias do Rio de Janeiro e Minas Gerais''. Belo Horizonte: Editora Itatiaia.
- Martius, Karl Friedrich Philip von. 1863. ''Glossaria linguarum Brasiliensium: glossarios de diversas lingoas e dialectos, que fallao os Indios no imperio do Brazil''. Erlangen: Druck von Jange.
- Saint-Hilaire, Auguste de. 2000. ''Viagem pelas províncias do Rio de Janeiro e Minas Gerais''. Belo Horizonte: Editora Itatiaia.
- Loukotka, Čestmír. (1968). "Classification of South American Indian languages". UCLA Latin American Center.
- Mason, John Alden. (1950). "Handbook of South American Indians". [[Smithsonian Institution]], [[Bureau of American Ethnology]] Bulletin 143.
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