Sinosphere

Terminology

Ancient China was one of the cradles of civilization, with the emergent cultures that arose from the migration of Han settlers from the Yellow River generally regarded as the origin of the East Asian world.

Japanese historian (1919–1998), professor emeritus at the University of Tokyo, coined the term to refer to an East Asian cultural sphere distinct from the cultures of the West. According to Nishijima, this cultural sphere—which includes China, Japan, Korea, and Vietnam—shared the philosophy of Confucianism, the religion of Buddhism, and similar political and social structures stemming from a background of historical Classical Chinese scholars. It has also been informally referred to as the "chopsticks sphere" due to perceived native use of these utensils across the region.

Etymology

The term Sinosphere is derived from Sino- 'China' ( Sinophone) + -sphere, in the sense of the sphere of influence under the influence of a country.

The CJK languages—Chinese, Japanese, Korean—each use cognate terms to translate English sphere:

• Chinese (; 'circle', 'ring', 'pen')
• Japanese (圏、けん; 'sphere', 'circle', 'range', 'radius')
• Korean (권; from 圏)

Unlike with the other languages of the Sinosphere, the corresponding Vietnamese cognate khuyên 圈 is not used to mean 'sphere' or 'area'. Instead, vùng ('region', 'area') is used. The Chinese 東亞文化圈 is translated in Vietnamese as Vùng văn hóa Á Đông (塳文化亞東).

In the Ryukyuan languages, 圏 (ちん; ) is not used to mean 'sphere', 'area', or 'domain' and only appears in kammun texts written by Ryukyuans. Instead, 世 () is used to mean 'world' or 'sphere'. As such, and would be translated as (漢字一型ぬ世) and (東亜一型ぬ世), respectively.

Victor H. Mair discussed the origins of these 'culture sphere' terms. The Chinese () dates to a 1941 translation for the German term Kulturkreis, ('culture circle, field'), which the Austrian ethnologists Fritz Graebner and Wilhelm Schmidt proposed. Japanese historian coined the expressions Kanji bunka ken and Chuka bunka ken, which China later re-borrowed as loanwords. The Sinosphere may be taken to be synonymous to Ancient China and its descendant civilizations as well as the "Far Eastern civilizations" (the Mainland and the Japanese ones). In Toynbee's A Study of History (1934–1961), the Sinosphere is presented as among the major "units of study", along with the Western, Islamic, Eastern Orthodox, and Indic civilizations.

Comparisons with the West

British historian Arnold J. Toynbee lists the Far Eastern civilization as one of the main civilizations outlined in his book A Study of History. He proposes that the initial "Sinic civilization" originating in the Yellow River basin gradually grew into the subsequent "Far Eastern civilization", which extended to the Yangzi region and into Korea and Japan. Commonalities within the Far Eastern civilization were the result of developing from a "Sinic universal state". Toynbee contrasts this "affiliation" relationship between the Sinic and Far Eastern civilizations with the "apparentation-affiliation" relationship between the Hellenic and Western civilizations.

American sinologist and historian Edwin O. Reischauer also groups China, Japan, Korea, and Vietnam into a cultural sphere that he calls the "Sinic world", a group of centralized states that share a Confucian ethical philosophy. Reischauer states that this culture originated in northern China, and compares the relationship between northern China and East Asia to that of Greco-Roman civilization and Europe. The elites of East Asia were tied together through a common written language based on Chinese characters, much in the way that Latin functioned in Europe.

In his book The Clash of Civilizations, American political scientist Samuel P. Huntington considers the Sinic world as one of the modern (post–Cold War) civilizations. He notes that "all scholars recognize the existence of either a single distinct Chinese civilization dating back to at least 1500 B.C. and perhaps a thousand years earlier, or of two Chinese civilizations, one succeeding the other, in the early centuries of the Christian epoch". Huntington's Sinic civilization includes China, North Korea, South Korea, Vietnam, and Chinese communities in Southeast Asia. Of the many civilizations that Huntington discusses, the Sinic world is the only one that is based on a cultural, rather than religious, identity. Huntington theorizes that in a post–Cold War world, humanity "[identifies] with cultural groups: tribes, ethnic groups, religious communities [and] at the broadest level, civilizations". One exception is Japan, which Huntington considers as a distinct civilization.

Culture

Structure of the personal name

Main article: Chinese name, Japanese name, Korean name, Vietnamese name

The structure of personal names in the Sinosphere follows the surname-first order, also known as the Eastern name order. Additionally, Korean and Vietnamese personal name share a structure similar to Chinese one, in that they have some monosyllabic surnames in common (e.g. Lee, Chen,..), and full names typically consist of about two to four Chinese characters.

Arts

• Architecture: Countries of the East Asian cultural sphere (Japan, Korea, Mongolia, Vietnam, Taiwan, Hong Kong) share a common architectural style stemming from the architecture of ancient China.
• Calligraphy: Caoshu is a cursive script style used in Chinese and East Asian calligraphy.
• Cinema: see Hong Kong cinema, Taiwanese cinema, Chinese cinema, Japanese cinema, Korean cinema, Vietnamese cinema
• Comic: see manga (Japanese comics), manhua (Chinese comics), manhwa (Korean comics), truyện tranh (Vietnamese comics)
• Gardening: The art of cultivating miniature trees and landscapes: see bonsai (Japanese), penjing (Chinese), bunjae (Korean), hòn non bộ (Vietnamese)
• Martial arts: see gōngfu (kung fu; Chinese martial arts); taekwondo and hapkido (Korean martial arts); karate, aikido, judo, jujutsu and sumo (Japanese martial arts); vovinam and nhất nam (Vietnamese martial arts)
• Music: Chinese musical instruments, such as the erhu, have influenced those of Korea, Japan, Taiwan, Hong Kong, and Vietnam and Yazheng influenced Japan (koto), Korea(gayageum) and Mongolia (yatga).
• Clothing: hanfu, hanbok, việt phục, and wafuku all use silk. Jade jewelry and ornaments are also highly valued throughout East Asia and Southeast Asia. |File:Officials.jpeg|Ming dynasty's mandarins in imperial costume. |File:Sim_Hwan-ji.jpg|Joseon's Sim Hwan-ji in Gwanbok. |File:Prince Mikasa Takahito wearing Sokutai.jpg| Japanese prince Takahito in Sokutai. |File:Vietnamese officials.jpg|3 Vietnamese mandarins wearing Python robe (Mãng Bào, 蟒袍).

Cuisine

Main article: East Asian cuisine

The cuisine of East Asia shares many of the same ingredients and techniques. Chopsticks are used as an eating utensil in all of the core East Asian countries. The use of soy sauce, which is made from fermenting soybeans, is also widespread in the region.

Rice is the staple food in all of East Asia and is a major focus of food security. People who have no rice are often seen as having no food. Moreover, in East Asian countries such as Japan (御飯; ja), Korea (밥; bap), and Vietnam (cơm; 𩚵 or 粓), the word for "cooked rice" can embody the meaning of food in general.

Popular terms associated with East Asian cuisine include boba, kimchi, sushi, hot pot, tea, dim sum, ramen, as well as phở, sashimi, udon, and chả giò.

Traditions

• Fashion: see hanfu and cheongsam (or qipao) (Chinese and Manchu); Vietnamese clothing (Vietnamese, including áo dài); Mongolian clothing (deel) hanbok (Korean); kimono and wafuku (Japanese)
• Dance: The lion dance is a form of traditional dance in Chinese culture and other East Asian countries, in which performers in a lion costume mimic a lion's movements to bring good luck and fortune. Aside from China, versions of the lion dance are found in Japan, Korea, Vietnam, Tibet, and Taiwan. Lion dances are usually performed during Lunar New Year celebrations.
• New Year: China (Zhōngguó Xīn Nián), Korea (Seollal), Vietnam (Tết Nguyên Đán), Mongolia (Tsagaan sar), Japan (Koshōgatsu), and Taiwan traditionally observe the same Lunar New Year. However, Japan has moved its New Year (Shōgatsu) to fit the Western New Year since the Meiji Restoration. Although mainland Japan no longer celebrates Lunar New Year, some indigenous minority ethnic groups in Japan still do, such as the Ryukyuan people (Okinawans). Okinawa has traditionally observed the Lunar New Year because of heavy Chinese influence in its past. Okinawans still celebrate and partake in many traditions for Lunar New Year, though to less of an extent than Western New Year.

Literature

Main article: Adoption of Chinese literary culture

East Asian literary culture is based on the use of Literary Chinese, which became the medium of scholarship, administration, and government across the region. Although Vietnam, Korea, and Japan each developed vernacular writing systems for their languages, these were limited to popular literature. Literary Chinese remained the medium of formal writing until the late 19th and early 20th centuries, when it was swept away by rising nationalism and displaced by vernacular writing.

Though they did not use Chinese for spoken communication, each country had its own tradition of reading texts aloud, the so-called Sino-Xenic pronunciations, which provide clues to the pronunciation of Middle Chinese. Chinese words with these pronunciations were also borrowed extensively by local vernaculars and today comprise over half their vocabularies. Vernacular or standard Chinese encompassing varieties of Chinese also developed alongside the use of Literary Chinese.

Books in Literary Chinese were widely distributed. By the 7th century and possibly earlier, woodblock printing had been developed in China. At first, it was used only to copy Buddhist scriptures, but later secular works were also printed. By the 13th century, metal movable type was used by government printers in Korea but seems to have not been extensively used in China, Vietnam, or Japan. At the same time, manuscript reproduction remained important until the late 19th century.

Japan's textual scholarship had Chinese origins, which made Japan one of the birthplaces of modern sinology.

The Four Books and Five Classics are the authoritative books of Confucianism, which were used to study for civil service examinations in China, Korea, and Vietnam.

Philosophy and religion

Main article: East Asian religions, Eastern philosophy#East Asian philosophies

The Art of War, Tao Te Ching, I Ching, and Analects are classic Chinese texts that have been influential in East Asian history. More generally, the philosophies and practices of Taoism, Buddhism, and Confucianism have had long-standing and deep-rooted influence in Sinosphere countries.

Taoism

Main article: Taoism

Taoism has influenced countries throughout the Sinosphere. The Taoist school of thought emerged in China from the teachings of Lao Tse. It follows the search for the tao, a concept that is equivalent to a 'path' or 'course' and represents the cosmic force that creates the universe and all things. According to this belief, the wisdom of the tao is the only source of the universe and represents a natural path of life events. Thus, the adherents of Taoism follow the search for tao, which represents the strength of the universe.

The most important text in Taoism, the Tao Te Ching ("Book of the Way and Virtue", c. 300 BC), declares that the tao is the "source" of the universe, thus considered a creative principle, but not as a deity. Nature manifests itself spontaneously, without a higher intention, and it is up to humans to integrate, through "non-action" (wu wei) and spontaneity (zi ran), to its flow and rhythms, in order to achieve happiness and a long life.

Taoism is a combination of teachings from various sources; it manifests as a system that can be philosophical, religious, or ethical. The tradition can also be presented as a worldview and a way of life.

Buddhism

Main article: East Asian Buddhism

Buddhist philosophy is guided by the teachings of the Buddha, which lead the individual to enlightenment through meditative practices, mindfulness, and reflection on their daily actions. The belief is that physical and spiritual awareness leads to a state of enlightenment called nirvana, which, according to Buddha, is the highest state of meditation. In this state the individual finds peace and tranquility above the oscillations of thoughts and emotions and is rid of the inherent suffering of the physical world.

Buddhism in the Sinosphere is or derives from Mahayana Buddhism, a sect which is seen to be intertwined within Taoism and Confucianism. It advocates for altruism and compassion, as well as understanding and escaping from suffering in relation to karma. Vegetarianism or veganism is followed by more monastic or devout Buddhists of this sect, and even among lay Buddhists, as it leads to compassion for all living, sentient beings.

Confucianism

Main article: Confucianism

The countries of China, Japan, Korea, and Vietnam share a Confucian philosophical worldview. Confucianism is a humanistic philosophy that believes that human beings are teachable, improvable, and perfectible through personal and communal endeavor, especially including self-cultivation and self-creation. Confucianism focuses on the cultivation of virtue and maintenance of ethics, the most basic of which are:

• rén (仁): an obligation of altruism and humaneness for other individuals
• yì (义/義): the upholding of righteousness and the moral disposition to do good
• lǐ (礼/禮): a system of norms and propriety that determines how a person should properly act in everyday life

Neo-Confucianism

Main article: Neo-Confucianism

Mid-Imperial Chinese philosophy is primarily defined by the development of neo-Confucianism, which has its origins in the Tang dynasty. The Confucianist scholar Han Yu is seen as a forebear of the neo-Confucianists of the Song dynasty. The Song dynasty philosopher Zhou Dunyi is seen as the first true "pioneer" of neo-Confucianism, using Taoist metaphysics as a framework for his ethical philosophy.

Elsewhere in East Asia, Japanese philosophy began to develop as indigenous Shinto beliefs fused with Buddhism, Confucianism, and other schools of Chinese philosophy. Similarly, in Korean philosophy, elements of shamanism were integrated into the neo-Confucianism imported from China. In Vietnam, neo-Confucianism, along with Taoism and Buddhism, were also developed into Vietnam's own Tam giáo, which together with Vietnamese folk religion shaped Vietnamese philosophy.

Other religions

Though not commonly identified with East Asia, the following religions have been influential in its history.

Christianity is the most popular religion in South Korea, followed by Buddhism. Significant Christian communities are also found in mainland China, Hong Kong, Macau, Taiwan, Singapore, Japan, and Vietnam. In recent years, various denominations of Christianity, mainly Protestantism and Catholicism, have gained popularity in these areas, due to its own version of spirituality and charitability. However, it is unlikely to supersede the more natively rooted Buddhism, except in places like South Korea where Protestantism is more popular. In Vietnam, Roman Catholicism is prominent, and early Christian missionaries played a historical role in romanizing the Vietnamese language prior to French colonial rule.

• In South Korea, mainland China, and Hong Kong, Protestantism is the most common denomination, followed by Catholicism.
• In Taiwan, most follow Presbyterianism, followed by Catholicism.
• In Vietnam and Macau, Catholicism is more common, followed by Protestantism.
• In Japan, of the minority that are Christian, 60% were Protestant and the rest were Roman Catholic.
• In places with a Chinese majority but the potential for English as a first language, such as Singapore, Christianity is becoming more popular, with the most popular being Protestant branches, followed by Catholicism.

Islam has been practiced in China since the 7th century CE. It is the most popular religion in Xinjiang and has significant communities in Ningxia.

For Hinduism; see Hinduism in Vietnam, Hinduism in China.

No specific religious affiliation may also be practiced, and is often the most cited in several aforementioned countries. However, regardless of religious affiliations, most people in the Sinosphere are entwined with traces of Buddhism, Confucianism, and Taoism, or native religions and philosophies.

Language

Languages and language families

The following language families are found in and around the East Asian cultural sphere. Some have historically contributed to the vocabulary or development of Sinitic languages, while others have been influenced by them to some degree. Only some of these languages are highly indebted to Literary Chinese and thus relevant to the East Asian cultural sphere.

Vietnamese (Tiếng Việt; 㗂越) using the obsolete Chữ Nôm script Korean (한국어; Han'gugeo; 韓國語) Japanese (日本語; Nihongo; にほんご) Simplified Chinese (简体中文; Jiǎntǐ Zhōngwén) Traditional Chinese (繁體中文; Fántǐ Zhōngwén)]]

The core languages of the East Asian cultural sphere are predominantly Chinese, Japanese, Korean, and Vietnamese (CJKV), and their respective variants. These are well-documented to have historically used Chinese characters, with Japanese, Korean, and Vietnamese each having roughly 60% of their vocabulary derived from Chinese. There is a small set of minor languages that are comparable to the core East Asian languages, such as Zhuang and Hmong-Mien. They are often overlooked, since neither have their own country nor heavily export their culture, but Zhuang has been written in Hanzi-inspired characters called Sawndip for over 1,000 years. Hmong, while having supposedly lacked a writing system until modern history, is also suggested to have a similar percentage of Chinese loans to the core CJKV languages.

Due to the common usage of Chinese characters across East Asian nations, Chinese, Japanese, Korean, and Vietnamese people traditionally can engage in written communication using Literary Chinese without knowing other people's spoken language, a method called Brushtalk.

As a result, Japanese, Korean, and Vietnamese are also deemed Sino-Xenic languages that are highly influenced by ancient forms of Literary Chinese.

Writing systems

Chinese characters are considered the common culture that unifies the languages and cultures of many East Asian nations. Today, mainland China, Malaysia, and Singapore use Simplified Chinese characters, whereas Taiwan, Hong Kong, and Macau use Traditional Chinese characters.

Historically, Japan, Korea, and Vietnam have also used Chinese characters. Today, they are still used in Japan and South Korea, albeit in different forms.

Japan still uses kanji but has also invented kana, inspired by the Chinese cursive script.

Korea used to write in hanja but has invented an alphabetic system called hangul that is nowadays the majority script. However, hanja is still a required subject in South Korea schools. Most names are also written in hanja. Hanja is also studied and used in academia, newspapers, and law—areas where a lot of scholarly terms and Sino-Korean loanwords are used and necessary to distinguish between otherwise ambiguous homonyms.

Vietnam used to write in chữ Hán (Chinese characters) in Classical Chinese texts (Hán văn). In the 8th century, the Vietnamese began inventing many of their own chữ Nôm characters. Since French colonization, they have switched to using a modified version of the Latin alphabet called chữ Quốc ngữ. Chinese characters had a long and great influence on Vietnamese history and literature, and thus still hold a special place in Vietnamese culture. In Vietnam (and North Korea), chữ Hán can be seen in temples, cemeteries, and monuments as well as serving as decorative motifs in art and design.

Zhuang people are similar to the Vietnamese in that they used to write in Sawgun (Chinese characters) and have invented many of their own characters, called Sawndip. Sawndip is still used informally and in traditional settings, but the Chinese government officially promotes the use of an alphabetical script, which it introduced in 1957, for the language.

Economy and trade

Business culture

The business cultures of East Asia are heavily influenced by Buddhism, Confucianism, and Taoism. Common factors across the Sinosphere tend to place great emphasis and respect towards traits of humility and conformity.

Japan often features hierarchically organized companies, and Japanese work environments place a high value on interpersonal relationships. A leader of a Japanese company is typically valued on their ability to maintain social harmony, and to unify or bring together their employees, rather than simply being the top decision maker.

Korean businesses, adhering to Confucian values, are structured around a patriarchal family governed by filial piety () between management and employees, where knowing one's place within the hierarchy, and showing respect for a person's age and status, are very important in Korean society. It is not uncommon for people in a Korean office to refer to others as their seniors (ko) or their juniors (ko). A person's position within a company usually reflects their age, and juniors tend to listen to their seniors without pause. Koreans value maintaining a social harmonious environment that allows a worker's ko (mood or emotional feelings) to remain balanced.

Maintaining face is usually how business and social relationships work in East Asia, whereas aggressively patronising others, or criticising them publicly in front of others, tend to be the ways to lose business relationships. In Chinese business culture, there is a high value on nurturing relationships using the social concept of guanxi, which refers to a state of having personal trust and a solid relationship with someone, and can involve exchanging favours and have moral obligations to one another.

Vietnamese culture tends to be hierarchical by age and seniority. The Vietnamese prefer to work with those who they trust, extending this to business relations that often are maintained between peers and relatives. Women have an important role in Vietnamese culture (owing to their historical status as soldiers). Interpersonal relationships are also highly valued. Vietnamese businesspeople may take spoken word as fact. Maintaining face is highly important—anger or displaying temper will reduce trust. When there are disruptions in harmony, Vietnamese may use silence as a way of allowing any tension to simmer down.

History

During the Industrial Revolution, East Asia modernized and became an area of economic power, starting with the Meiji Restoration in the late 19th century, when Japan rapidly transformed itself into the only industrial power outside the North Atlantic area.

Postwar economies

Hong Kong's successful post–WWII economy, based on developing strong textile and manufacturing industries, led to the territory's categorization as one of the Four Asian Tigers. South Korea followed a similar route, developing its textile industry. After the post–WWII US military occupation of the country, the Korean War, and the ultimate division of the peninsula, South Korea experienced what has become known as the Miracle on the Han River, with the rise of chaebols like Samsung and LG strongly driving its economy. As of 2023, South Korea had the 12th largest economy in the world by nominal GDP.

Japanese economic growth stagnated in the 1990s; yet it currently remains the world's 3rd largest economy by nominal GDP. Presently, higher growth in the region has been experienced by China and the Tiger Cub Economies of Southeast Asia, particularly Vietnam.

The impact of the Vietnam War was devastating. Vietnam only started opening its economy through Đổi Mới reforms in 1986, and the US lifted its embargo on Vietnam only in 1995. Since then, the Vietnamese economy has been developing at a rapid pace.

Modern era

Up until the early 2010s, Vietnamese trade was heavily dependent on China. Most Chinese-Vietnamese people are from Cantonese background, and can speak Cantonese and Vietnamese, which share many linguistic similarities. Vietnam, one of the Next Eleven countries , is regarded as a rising economic power in Southeast Asia.

Since the reform and opening up, China's economy has grown rapidly. In 2020, the country had become the 2nd and 1st-largest economy in the world respectively by nominal GDP and GDP (PPP).

Although Greater China, Japan, and Korea all have extensive links with the rest of ASEAN, Vietnam is the only Sinosphere country that is formally part of ASEAN as a Southeast Asian country. Singapore, a highly developed economy, is also a part of ASEAN with a population that is significantly overseas Chinese. The economies of China and Japan are respectively the world's second- and third-largest economies by nominal GDP, and both are highly influential globally in terms of cultural exportation. South Korea was the 13th largest in 2022 by nominal GDP and has been highly influential as well, with the popularity of the Korean wave since the 1990s. North Korea was the 107th largest, and Vietnam the 35th largest, by nominal GDP in 2023.

Sinosphere countries are involved in various economic groups and initiatives, including:

• Belt and Road Initiative
• Shanghai Cooperation Organization
• ASEAN, ASEAN Plus Three, AFTA
• East Asia Summit
• East Asian Community
• Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership

Relations

Mutual relations stem from hundreds to thousands of years of history between each Sinosphere state, originating from trade, cultural flow, conquest, and the spread of Classical Chinese writing. Despite these long historical connections, racism and xenophobia stemming from deep-rooted historical, economic, political, or regional differences has also been a major concern. In addition to mutual relations, various forms of inheritance of Chinese civilisation or "Little China" ideologies have surfaced with Vietnam, Japan, and Korea, (the use of 中國 in self-reference) in various situations, conferring the "Chinese" label.

China has had direct relations with its immediate neighbors since at least the first century BC. The Han dynasty conquered parts of northern Vietnam in 111 BC, and northern Korea in 109 BC (although Chinese influence there had begun earlier). Chinese rule and influence continued to impact Vietnam and Korea. China–Vietnam relations are tied to historical confrontations and the transfer of cultural and philosophical thoughts emanating from China to Vietnam. Although the countries are currently similar politically, their relations can also sometimes be fraught and unsound.

The various Baiyue peoples () were vaguely but historically connected to the southern Chinese and Vietnamese. In the past, [粵] (Yue, Viet, Cantonese) was interchangeable with the homophonous character that today refers specifically to the Vietnamese [越] (Yue, Viet, Vietnamese). Cantonese scholars looked through earlier Chinese sources to find historical information about the Việt/Yue, whether recorded with [粵] or [越].

Vietnam and Korea had semi-official encounters when both countries' envoys met in China from the 16th to 19th centuries. Despite the geographical distance, the countries share parallels, such as colonial rule and political division. South Korea was involved with South Vietnam in the controversial Vietnam War. Today, Vietnam uniquely maintains good relations both with democratic states (like the US and South Korea) and with its historic communist allies (like China and North Korea). Although courteous, Vietnam's separate relations with North Korea and South Korea are made delicate by the tensions on the Korean peninsula. Vietnam was used as neutral ground for the 2019 North Korean–US summit.

China has influenced Japan for around two millennia. Historically, Japan emulated many cultural and philosophical thoughts from China, with many Japanese undertaking studies that came from China or via Korea. Culture, trade, and military confrontation has been a major focal point between the two as well, and relations can become very fraught.

Japan's links with Southeast Asia were mainly through maritime trade stemming from the 16th century. Japan's relations with Vietnam via China goes further back, to the 8th century. Although some residual grievances about Japan's historical colonization in Asia may remain, as well as existing political differences, the relation has mostly been of mutualism. However, instances of mistreatment, such as abuse towards Vietnamese laborers in Japan, has surfaced.

Korea and Japan have had extensive links in terms of culture, trade, political contact, and military confrontations. The history of Japan–Korea relations extends for over 15 centuries, with many ideas from mainland Asia flowing into Japan via Korea in historical times. Although geographically close, the two countries are culturally distinct from one another and may harbor contrasting military and historical viewpoints, where relations can turn fraught, especially in the context of Japanese colonization.

Korea and China relations are extensive and several millennia old. Much cultural and intellectual trade has transferred into Korea from China. The states have also partaken in several military confrontations, with parts of Korea being subsumed by Chinese rule since 109 BC. Much of the history between Korea and China focused on Northeast Asia, and played a role in transmitting knowledge to Japan. Korea has also shared relations with Manchuria and Northeast China, which themselves practiced a form of cultural assimilation with the Han Chinese. Modern relations between China and Korea can become fraught.

Notes

References

Citations

Sources

• Joshua Fogel, "The Sinic World," in Ainslie Thomas Embree, Carol Gluck, ed., Asia in Western and World History a Guide for Teaching. (Armonk, N.Y.: M.E. Sharpe, Columbia Project on Asia in the Core Curriculum, 1997). . Access may be limited to NetLibrary affiliated libraries. EBSCOhost Login

References

1. (2022). "Reading Acquisition of Chinese as a Second/Foreign Language". Frontiers in Psychology.
2. (2018). "Yellow Perils: China Narratives in the Contemporary World". University of Hawaiʻi Press.
3. (2018). "Inner Eurasia from the Mongol Empire to Today, 1260–2000". John Wiley & Sons.
4. (2019). "The Oxford Handbook of Sound and Imagination". Oxford University Press.
5. Gold, Thomas B.. (1993). "Go with Your Feelings: Hong Kong and Taiwan Popular Culture in Greater China". The China Quarterly.
6. Hee, Wai-Siam. (2019). "Remapping the Sinophone: The Cultural Production of Chinese-Language Cinema in Singapore and Malaya before and during the Cold War". Hong Kong University Press.
7. Kang, David C.. (2012). "East Asia before the West: five centuries of trade and tribute". Columbia University Press.
8. Howe, Christopher. The Origins of Japanese Trade Supremacy: Development and Technology in Asia. p. 337
9. (2020). "Rethinking the Sinosphere: Poetics, Aesthetics, and Identity Formation". Cambria.
10. (2020). "Reexamining the Sinosphere: Cultural Transmissions and Transformations in East Asia". Cambria.
11. (2013). "Confucius in East Asia: Confucianism's History in China, Korea, Japan, and Vietnam". Association for Asian Studies.
12. (2017). "The Oxford Handbook of Classical Chinese Literature (1000 BCE-900 CE)". Oxford University Press.
13. (19 April 2018). "Atlas of the World's Languages". Routledge.
14. (14 October 2014). "Indexing Authenticity: Sociolinguistic Perspectives". Walter de Gruyter.
15. Pelly, Patricia. (2018). "Historical Writing Since 1945". Oxford University Press.
16. Takacs, Sarolta. (4 March 2015). "The Modern World: Civilizations of Africa, Civilizations of Europe, Civilizations of the Americas, Civilizations of the Middle East and Southwest Asia, Civilizations of Asia and the Pacific". Routledge.
17. (9 September 2020). "Huang He Valley".
18. 978-0-7425-1768-4), p. 322.
19. Lee, Lung-Sheng Steven. (2013-06-04). "Achieving Quality Assurance and Moving to a World Class University in the 21st Century".
20. Handel, Zev. (2019). "Sinography: The Borrowing and Adaptation of the Chinese Script". Brill.
21. Victor Mair, [http://languagelog.ldc.upenn.edu/nll/?p=4306 Sinophone and Sinosphere], [[Language Log]], 8 November 2012.
22. See the "family tree" of Toynbee's "civilizations" in any edition of Toynbee's work, or e.g. as Fig.1 on p.16 of: ''The Rhythms of History: A Universal Theory of Civilizations'', By Stephen Blaha. Pingree-Hill Publishing, 2002. {{ISBN. 0-9720795-7-2.
23. Sun, Lung-kee. (2002). "The Chinese National Character: From Nationalhood to Individuality". M.E. Sharpe.
24. Sun, Lung-kee. (2002). "The Chinese National Character: From Nationalhood to Individuality". M.E. Sharpe.
25. ''The Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking of World Order.'' (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1996; {{ISBN
26. William E. Davis. (2006). "Peace and Prosperity in an Age of Incivility". University Press of America.
27. Michail S. Blinnikov. (2011). "A Geography of Russia and Its Neighbors". Guilford Press.
28. Lung-kee Sun. (2002). "The Chinese National Character: From Nationalhood to Individuality". M.E. Sharpe.
29. Hugh Gusterson. (2004). "People of the bomb: portraits of America's nuclear complex". U of Minnesota Press.
30. (8 July 2016). "The Emptiness of Japanese Affluence". Routledge.
31. (February 2002). "How to Prepare for the AP World History". Barrons Educational Series.
32. Pan, Lu. (22 June 2015). "Aestheticizing Public Space: Street Visual Politics in East Asian Cities". Intellect Books.
33. Davidson, Alan. (1981). "Food in Motion: The Migration of Foodstuffs and Cookery Techniques : Proceedings: Oxford Symposium 1983". Oxford Symposium.
34. Katz, Sandor Ellix. (14 May 2012). "The Art of Fermentation: New York Times Bestseller". Chelsea Green Publishing.
35. (2000). "Food security in Asia: economics and policies". Edward Elgar Publishing.
36. (1 February 2015). "Re-Orienting Cuisine: East Asian Foodways in the Twenty-First Century". Berghahn Books, Incorporated.
37. (20 January 2010). "Tradition: Okinawa Lunar New Year Celebration".
38. Kornicki, P.F.. (2011). "New Word Order: Transnational Themes in Book History". Worldview Publications.
39. "Given Japan's strong tradition of Chinese textual scholarship, encouraged further by visits by eminent Chinese scholars since the early 20th century, Japan has been one of the birthplaces of modern sinology outside China" Early China – A Social and Cultural History, page 11. Cambridge University Press.
40. Willett-Wei, Megan. "30 Books That Changed the Course of History".
41. Hansen, Chad. (2024). "Daoism". Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University.
42. "Buddhism".
43. (2021). "The Three Teachings of East Asia (TTEA) Inventory: Developing and Validating a Measure of the Interrelated Ideologies of Confucianism, Buddhism, and Taoism". Frontiers in Psychology.
44. "Death and Dying in Buddhism".
45. Tseng, Ampere A.. (2020-02-01). "Equivalent Reduction in Greenhouse Gas Emissions by Mahayana Buddhists Practicing Vegetarian Diets". Journal of Religion and Health.
46. Kapleau, Philip. (1986). "To cherish all life：a Buddhist case for becomingvegetarian". The Zen Center.
47. Davidson, Jo Ann. (Fall 2003). "World Religions and the Vegetarian Diet". [[Journal of the Adventist Theological Society]].
48. Juergensmeyer, Mark. (2005). "Religion in global civil society". [[Oxford University Press]].
49. [[Edward Craig (philosopher). Craig, Edward]]. ''Philosophy: A Very Short Introduction''. {{ISBN. 0-19-285421-6 p. 536
50. Huang, Siu-Chi. (1999). "Essentials of Neo-Confucianism: Eight Major Philosophers of the Song and Ming Periods". [[Greenwood Publishing]].
51. {{Harvnb. Chan. 1963
52. Analysis. (19 December 2011). "Global Christianity". Pew Research Center.
53. Lai, Whalen. (1992). "Chinese Buddhist and Christian Charities: A Comparative History". Buddhist-Christian Studies.
54. Sung-Hae Kim S.C. "The Charism of Charity in East Asian Culture: Reinterpretation of the Spirit of Simplicity, Humility, and Charitythe". Vincentian Heritage Journal.
55. Choi, Hyaeweol. (2020). "The Sacred and the Secular: Protestant Christianity as Lived Experience in Modern Korea: An Introduction". Journal of Korean Studies.
56. N. V. Hai, Peter. (2012). "A Brief History of the Catholic Church in Vietnam". East Asian Pastoral Review.
57. (2019-11-22). "A Little Faith: Christianity and the Japanese".
58. McCracken, Brett. (2018-09-24). "How the Gospel Takes Root in 'Crazy Rich' Singapore".
59. "STATISTICS SINGAPORE – Infographic – General Household Survey 2015".
60. Pillsbury, B. L. K.. (1981). "Muslim History in China: A 1300-year Chronology". Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs.
61. (24 April 2019). "Phylogenetic evidence for Sino-Tibetan origin in northern China in the Late Neolithic". Nature.
62. (2019). "Dated language phylogenies shed light on the ancestry of Sino-Tibetan". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.
63. (19–20 August 2004). "Current Developments in Comparative Austronesian Studies". ANU Research Publications.
64. (2005). "Traces of Archaic Mitochondrial Lineages Persist in Austronesian-Speaking Formosan Populations". PLOS Biology.
65. (21 April 2015). "The Genetic Legacy of the Expansion of Turkic-Speaking Nomads across Eurasia". PLOS Genetics.
66. (2003). "Archaeology and Language II: Archaeological Data and Linguistic Hypotheses". Routledge.
67. "Transeurasian theory: A case of farming/language dispersal".
68. DeFrancis, John. (1977). "Colonialism and language policy in Viet Nam". Mouton.
69. Sohn, Ho-min. (1999). "The Korean language". Cambridge University Press.
70. Shibatani, Masayoshi.. (1990). "The languages of Japan". Cambridge University Press.
71. Ratliff, Martha Susan.. (2010). "Hmong-Mien language history". Pacific Linguistics.
72. (6 February 2020). "Silent conversation through Brushtalk (筆談): The use of Sinitic as a scripta franca in early modern East Asia". De Gruyter.
73. Osterkamp, Sven. (2015-12-30). "Sino-Xenic Readings". Brill.
74. (24 June 2017). "Korean, Vietnamese and Japanese language are so similar to Mandarin(原來韓文、越南文、日文跟中文這麼像)".
75. (26 September 2013). "Why reading their own language gives Mongolians a headache".
76. Zhou, Minglang. (24 October 2012). "Multilingualism in China: the politics of writing reforms for minority languages, 1949–2002".
77. Li, Jin. (2016-04-02). "Humility in learning: A Confucian perspective *". Journal of Moral Education.
78. Cheng, Stephen K. K.. (1990). "Understanding the Culture and Behaviour of East Asians — A Confucian Perspective". Australian & New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry.
79. (2021). "Japanese Culture - Core Concepts".
80. (2016). "Vietnamese Culture - Core Concepts".
81. "Where cultures meet; a cross-cultural comparison of business meeting styles". Hogeschool van Amsterdam.
82. (31 July 2019). "Japanese Business Structures".
83. (January 2021). "Japanese Culture - Business Culture".
84. (1999). "Culture and economy: the shaping of capitalism in eastern Asia". University of Michigan Press.
85. "Korean business culture and etiquette".
86. "Understanding the concept of 'guanxi'".
87. "Guanxi: What it is, History, How it Works, FAQ".
88. (2016). "Vietnamese Culture - Business Culture".
89. "Business culture in Viet Nam".
90. Aiko Ikeo. (4 January 2002). "Economic Development in Twentieth-Century East Asia: The International Context". Taylor & Francis.
91. (1995). "Industrial Location: Principles, Practice, and Policy". Routledge.
92. Pham, Peter. "What Is South Korea's Secret Weapon?".
93. "South Korea's Chaebol". Bloomberg.com.
94. (21 August 2018). "Why South Korea risks following Japan into economic stagnation".
95. Abe, Naoki. (12 February 2010). "Japan's Shrinking Economy".
96. (28 February 2017). "The rise and demise of Asia's four little dragons".
97. "YPs' Guide To: Southeast Asia—How Tiger Cubs Are Becoming Rising Tigers".
98. (3 January 2023). "My thoughts on Cantonese as a Viet".
99. (11 September 2018). "The story behind Viet Nam's miracle growth".
100. (15 October 2020). "China Is Now the World's Largest Economy. We Shouldn't Be Shocked.".
101. Baker, Dean. (2020-12-26). "China Has the World's Largest Economy: Get Over It".
102. Woodside, Alexander. (2006-05-30). "Lost Modernities". Harvard University Press.
103. (2019). "War, Rebellion, and Intervention under Hierarchy: Vietnam–China Relations, 1365 to 1841". Journal of Conflict Resolution.
104. Chen, Xi. (2020). "Study on the Value Identity of Chinese and Vietnamese Culture of Song Genius". Advances in Social Science, Education and Humanities Research.
105. "The China Factor in Vietnam's Multidirectional Foreign Policy".
106. Kelley, Liam C.. (2012-07-01). "The Biography of the Hồng Bàng Clan as a Medieval Vietnamese Invented Tradition". Journal of Vietnamese Studies.
107. Youn, Dae-Yong. (2014). "The Loss of Vietnam: Korean Views of Vietnam in the Late Nineteenth and Early Twentieth Centuries". Journal of Vietnamese Studies.
108. Park, Joon-woo. (2012-03-02). "Korea and Vietnam: the Bilateral Relations".
109. (2017). "War on Two Fronts: The Fight against Parasites in Korea and Vietnam". Med. Hist..
110. (2023-07-03). "Caution needed in developing defense ties with Vietnam, North Korea's comrade".
111. "The ups and downs of the Vietnam–North Korea relationship {{!}} Lowy Institute".
112. "My decade watching the Korean peninsula: the delicacy of peace {{!}} Lowy Institute".
113. (2004). "A History of Japan".
114. Tamamoto, Masaru. (2005). "How Japan Imagines China and Sees Itself". World Policy Journal.
115. Owen, Norman G., Chandler, David. ''The Emergence of Modern Southeast Asia'' (p. 107). [University of Hawai{{okinai Press University of Hawaiʻi Press], 2005. {{ISBN. 0-8248-2841-0
116. [[Louis-Frédéric
117. Japan and Vietnam - Archival Records on Our History (Joint Project Celebrating the 45th Anniversary of Japan-Viet Nam Diplomatic Relations). (2018). "Japan and Vietnam § Early Associations.". [[National Archives of Japan]].
118. "East Asian Tensions and the Lessons From Hanoi".
119. (2018). "Vietnam–Japan Relations: Moving beyond Economic Cooperation?". ISEAS–Yusof Ishak Institute.
120. (2023-10-26). "Vietnamese trainee worker in Japan recalls violence, struggle to switch jobs". Mainichi Daily News.
121. (2023-09-06). "Japan is no longer an attractive destination for Vietnamese workers".
122. Kwan-young Kim. "Japan and Korea: A Turbulent History".
123. (2017). "'History Wars' and Reconciliation in Japan and Korea".
124. Kim, Ji Young. (2014). "Escaping the Vicious Cycle: Symbolic Politics and History Disputes Between South Korea and Japan". Asian Perspective.
125. Yun, Peter. (2016). "Guest Editor's Introduction: Manchuria and Korea in East Asian History". International Journal of Korean History.
126. Huang, Pei. (2011). "Reorienting the Manchus: A Study of Sinicization, 1583-1795". East Asia Program, Cornell University.
127. Chung, Jae Ho. (2012). "Korean Views of Korea-China Relations: Evolving Perceptions and Upcoming Challenges". Asian Perspective.