President of Syria

History

Mandatory Syria

In 1922, French authorities created the Syrian Federation under the Mandate for Syria and Lebanon, and Subhi Barakat was its president. The federation system did not last, and was replaced as the State of Syria by 1925. Barakat briefly retained the role of president until the beginning of the Great Syrian Revolt that year caused him to resign. Ahmad Nami replaced Barakat as president, until he was removed in 1928.

By 1930, Syrian pressure led the French authorities to promulgate the Syrian Constitution of 1930, establishing the First Syrian Republic. Under the constitution, the president must be a Muslim, and would be elected by a majority of the Syrian parliament.

Post-independence

Following the withdrawal of French troops from Syria in 1946, Syrian officials approved the Syrian Constitution of 1950, which maintained a parliamentary system. As such, the president would be elected by a majority of parliament. In the following years, Syria's presidency experienced several upheavals, including by Husni al-Za'im following his March 1949 coup and later by Adib Shishakli in through the 1951 coup. During Shishakli's rule, he published the Syrian Constitution of 1953, which established a presidential system with direct elections to the presidency. However, this constitution lasted less than a year, as the reinstated president Hashim al-Atassi returned the country to the 1950 constitution following the 1954 coup only a year later.

Following the 1958 referendum, Syria joined the United Arab Republic, and its president, Gamal Nasser, also became the Syrian president in the same referendum. This lasted for three years until the 1961 coup, when Syria restored its independence and the 1950 constitution.

Ba'athist Syria (1963–2024)

Following the 1963 Syrian coup d'état, the first decision of the "Revolution Command Council," chaired by Lu'ay al-Atassi, was to suspend the provisional constitution of the United Arab Republic, arrest President Nazim al-Qudsi and Prime Minister Khalid al-Azm, and impose a state of emergency that lasted for 48 years until it was lifted in April 2011. A new Provisional Constitution was adopted on 25 April 1964, which itself was replaced by the Provisional Constitution of 1 May 1969.

Under the Assad family (1971–2024)

On 31 January 1973, Hafez al-Assad implemented a new constitution, which led to a national crisis. Unlike previous constitutions, this one did not require that the president of Syria must be a Muslim, leading to fierce demonstrations in Hama, Homs and Aleppo. The main objection to the constitution from demonstrators was that Islam was not specified as the state religion. In response to riots, the Syrian Constitution of 1973 was amended to stipulate that Islam was the religion of the president. The constitution has been amended twice. Article 6 was amended in 1981.

After securing his control over the Syrian government, Assad initially chose his brother, Rifaat al-Assad, as his successor, but Rifaat's attempted power grab while Hafez was in a coma in 1984 led to his exile in Europe. Following the incident, Bassel al-Assad was groomed to succeed his father. Hafez's efforts to make Bassel the next president of Syria intensified in the early 1990s; after Hafez's election victory in 1991 in an election where Hafez was the only candidate, the president was publicly referred to as "Abu Basil" (Father of Bassel).

Shortly after Bassel died in a car accident in 1994, Bashar al-Assad was recalled to the Syrian Army. State propaganda soon began elevating Bashar's public image as "the hope of the masses" to prepare the public for a continuation of the rule of the Assad family. Soon after the death of Bassel, Hafez al-Assad decided to make Bashar the new heir apparent.

After the death of Hafez al-Assad on 10 June 2000, the Constitution was amended. The minimum age requirement for the presidency was lowered from 40 to 34, which was Bashar's age at the time. A 9-member committee was founded, headed by Abdul Halim Khaddam, to oversee the transition period. He was appointed by this committee as interim President of Syria on 10 June and was in consideration to be Assad's permanent successor, but instead helped Assad's son, Bashar.[[File:AssadRaisi2023.jpg|thumb|[[Bashar al-Assad]] with Iranian President [[Ebrahim Raisi]] in Damascus, 3 May 2023]]The sole candidate of the presidential referendum, Bashar al-Assad was subsequently confirmed president on 10 July 2000, with 97.29% support for his leadership. On 17 July 2000, Assad became president, succeeding his father, Hafez. In line with his role as President of Syria, he was also appointed the commander-in-chief of the Syrian Armed Forces and Regional Secretary of the Ba'ath Party. The existing personality cult portrays him as the "Young Leader" and the "Hope of the People." Drawing influence from North Korea's hereditary leadership model, official propaganda in Syria ascribed divine features to the Assad family, and reveres the Assad patriarchs as the founding fathers of modern Syria.

A new constitution was approved in February 2012 after the start of the Syrian revolution. A series of state elections were held every seven years which Assad won with overwhelming majority of votes. The elections are unanimously regarded by independent observers as a sham process and boycotted by the opposition. The last two elections – held in 2014 and 2021 – were conducted only in areas controlled by the Syrian government during the country's ongoing civil war and condemned by the United Nations.

The 2012 constitution ceased to be in effect after the fall of the Assad regime on 8 December 2024 and was officially phased out on 29 January 2025.

Post-Ba'athist Syria (2024–present)

After the fall of the Assad regime, the position became vacant on 8 December 2024. The duties of the head of state were carried out by the caretaker government, with Ahmed al-Sharaa serving as the de facto leader. On 29 January 2025, during the Syrian Revolution Victory Conference in Damascus, the Syrian General Command officially appointed al-Sharaa as the president for the transitional period. As president, al-Sharaa announced plans to issue a "constitutional declaration" as a legal reference following the repeal of the 2012 constitution of Ba'athist Syria.

On 2 March, al-Sharaa declared the establishment of a committee tasked with drafting a constitutional declaration to guide the country's transition following the ousting of the Assad regime. On 13 March, al-Sharaa signed an constitutional declaration for a transitional period of five years, enshrining Islamic law as a primary source of jurisprudence and promising to protect the rights of all Syria's ethnic and religious groups. The Constitutional Declaration sets a presidential system with the executive power at the hands of the president who appoints the ministers, without the position of prime minister.

On 29 March, the Syrian transitional government was announced by al-Sharaa at a ceremony at the People's Palace in Damascus, in which the new ministers were sworn in and delivered speeches outlining their agendas. The government replaced the caretaker government, which was formed following the fall of the Assad regime.

General Secretariat of the Presidency

Main article: General Secretariat of the Presidency (Syria)

The General Secretariat was established by a decree issued by President Bashar al-Assad on 13 December 2023, as part of a broader restructuring of the Syrian presidency. This reform dissolved the Ministry of Presidential Affairs and transferred all its staff and responsibilities to the new secretariat, which reports directly to the president rather than operating as a separate ministry.

The Secretary-General to the President is considered one of the highest-ranking positions in the Syrian state under the Presidency of the Syrian Arab Republic. The office supervises the presidential staff and represents the President at official events. The Secretary-General is responsible for managing the administrative and organizational affairs of the Presidency, overseeing the President's schedule, organizing official meetings and visits, and coordinating with government institutions to implement presidential directives. The current Secretary-General is Maher al-Sharaa.

Following the fall of the Assad government on 8 December 2024 and the establishment of a transitional administration under President Ahmed al-Sharaa, the General Secretariat continued its operations. The position of Assistant Secretary-General gained prominence in 2025, particularly with the appointment of Ali Keda on 26 May 2025. His role focused on Cabinet Affairs amid efforts to stabilize the new government and coordinate policy implementation across ministries.

Powers and roles

Ba'athist Syria (1963–2024)

The 1973 Constitution of Ba'athist Syria made the president head of state, chief executive, and commander-in-chief. Candidates were nominated by the Ba'ath Party, approved by parliament, and confirmed by referendum for a renewable seven-year term. The president held extensive powers, including appointing and dismissing ministers, senior officials, and judges, as well as dissolving parliament and appointing vice presidents. The 2012 Constitution expanded these powers further, granting the president broad control over the executive, legislature, and judiciary. It remained in force until the fall of the Assad regime in December 2024 and was replaced by the Constitutional Declaration of the Syrian Arab Republic on 13 March 2025.

Post-Ba'athist Syria (2025–present)

Under the Constitutional Declaration, the president of the Syrian Arab Republic serves as the commander-in-chief of the Syrian Armed Forces and is responsible for:

• Managing national governance
• Preserving territorial integrity and security
• Protecting the interests of the people

The president has the authority to:

• Appoint, remove, and accept the resignations of ministers
• Establish executive, regulatory, and control measures, as well as issue presidential orders and decisions following the law
• Act as the state's representative in international relations and formalize treaties with foreign nations and international organizations
• Declare general mobilization and war with the approval of the National Security Council
• Grant special pardons and restore honor
• Appoint and dismiss heads of diplomatic missions abroad and receive the credentials of foreign diplomatic representatives in Syria
• Propose laws, issue laws approved by the People's Assembly, and veto laws within one month of receipt. If the People's Assembly passes a veto law with a two-thirds majority, the president is required to enact it by decree.

In the event of a severe threat to national unity, sovereignty, or the proper functioning of state institutions, the president may:

• Impose a state of emergency, either fully or partially, for up to three months, after:
  • Securing approval from the National Security Council
  • Consulting with the speaker of the People's Assembly and the president of the Constitutional Court
• Extend the state of emergency only with the approval of the People's Assembly

Selection process

Election

Main article: Next Syrian presidential election

A presidential election in Syria is planned to take place within five years of the fall of the Assad regime in December 2024. Until then, Syria will be governed by a transitional government led by Syrian President Ahmed al-Sharaa. The last Syrian presidential election in Ba'athist Syria was held in 2021, before its overthrow during the 2024 Syrian opposition offensive.

Religion

Article 3 of the Constitutional Declaration states, "The religion of the President of the Republic is Islam; Islamic jurisprudence is the principal source of legislation.

Inauguration

The Constitutional Declaration provides the following oath or affirmation for the president, which must be taken before the People's Assembly.

Official residence

The People's Palace is the official residence of the President of Syria. It is located in the western part of Damascus, on Mount Mezzeh, just north of the Mezzeh neighborhood and next to Mount Qasioun, overlooking the city. The entire plateau of Mount Mezzeh is part of the palace compound, which is surrounded by a security wall and guard watchtowers. In front of the building is a large fountain, and the palace itself mostly consists of empty rooms clad in Carrara marble. The Syrian caretaker government later started using the palace for diplomatic events.

Before the construction of the new People's Palace on Mount Mezzeh in the early 1990s, Tishreen Palace served as the primary residence of the Assad family. On 8 December 2024, during the fall of the Assad regime, anti-Assad forces took control of the palace. After the regime fell, Syrians ransacked and looted the palace, inviting much of the public.

Succession

Article 34 of the Constitutional Declaration states, "In the event of a vacancy in the presidency, the Vice President shall assume the powers of the President of the Republic.".

List of presidents

Main article: List of presidents of Syria

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Explanatory notes

References

Sources

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