Political efficacy

Concept

It was introduced by Angus Campbell, Gerald Gurin, and W. E. Miller during an analyses of behavior and attitude of the voters in the 1952 United States presidential election and defined as the "feeling that individual action does have, or can have, an impact upon the political process".

There are two types of political efficacy:

• internal efficacy: the belief that one can understand politics and therefore participate in politics
• external efficacy: that the government will respond to one's demands Political efficacy is viewed as a "pre-condition for political engagement and is considered as a vital social characteristic within democratic societies."

Proportional representation shows higher political efficacy compared to plurality and majoritarian systems. Wasted votes can reduce political efficacy. Low political efficacy can lead to populism.

Ways of expression

There are multiple ways in which citizens' political efficacy can be expressed: through the media, by having the right to protest, by being able to create petitions, and by having free and fair elections. The feeling that a citizen is powerless in their own country may lead to political cynicism or outright violence, which are side effects of having low political efficacy in society. Citizens' political efficacy can also be expressed online through social media outlets as "media use – and news consumption in particular – enhances efficacy, public affairs knowledge, and civic engagement".

Feelings of efficacy are highly correlated with participation in social and political life; however, studies have not shown any relationship between public confidence in government or political leaders and voting. Political efficacy was found to polarize policy preferences. People with relatively high efficacy were found to express policy preferences that are more in line with their ideological orientation and more extreme; and people with low efficacy tend to express more moderate policy preferences. These results were in both experimental and observational studies. Efficacy usually increases with age.

While efficacy often drives participation, the relationship can be complex depending on electoral outcomes. A 2026 longitudinal study of the 2024 UK General Election found that while elections typically restore political trust, this restorative effect is significantly dampened for voters who supported losing parties and had engaged in high levels of collective action (such as protesting). For these individuals, the dissonance between their active engagement and the unfavorable political outcome may reinforce a belief that the system is unresponsive (low external efficacy).

References

References

1. (2020). "Policy Responsiveness and Electoral Incentives: A (Re)assessment". Political Behavior.
2. (1954). "The Voter Decides". Row, Peterson, and Co..
3. (1974). "Multiple Indicators in Survey Research: The Concept "Sense of Political Efficacy"". Political Methodology.
4. (2022). "How Context Matters: The Significance of Political Homogeneity and Language for Political Efficacy". Scandinavian Political Studies.
5. (2008). "Political Efficacy and Participation in Twenty-Seven Democracies: How Electoral Systems Shape Political Behaviour". British Journal of Political Science.
6. (2019). "The mediating role of political talk and political efficacy in the effects of news use on expressive and collective participation". Communication and the Public.
7. (2020). "Empowered and enraged: Political efficacy, anger and support for populism in Europe". European Journal of Political Research.
8. (2015-01-30). "Political Efficacy on the Internet: A Media System Dependency Approach". Emerald Group Publishing Limited.
9. (2013). "Making a Difference: Political Efficacy and Policy Preference Construction". British Journal of Political Science.
10. Gadgil, Arvinn. (2022-11-01). "Do Governments Listen To Their Citizens?". United Nations Development Programme.
11. (1968). "Aging, Voting, and Political Interest". American Sociological Review.
12. Marinthe, Gaëlle. (2026-01-02). "Collective Action hinders the increase in post-election trust among election losers: Longitudinal evidence from the 2024 UK election". advances.in/psychology.