National conservatism

Ideology

National conservatism focuses on "threats to moral order and the loss of moral bearing due to liberalism's relativism". It rejects the basic precepts of enlightenment liberalism, such as individualism and the universality of human rights. In America and Europe, national conservatives are majoritarian populists and advocate for fewer limits on the power of elected representatives to "smash the liberal state". It opposes modernity, secularism, liberalism, socialism, communism and anarchism, instead valuing Europe’s Christian heritage and "defending" Western civilization. National conservatism is silent on classical conservative thought expressed by Michael Oakeshott and Edmund Burke. In The Virtue of Nationalism, Yoram Hazony criticises Jean-Jacques Rousseau and John Locke for creating a "dream world" in which the "Jewish and Christian world" have "no place to exist". National conservatism disagrees with liberalism and socialism over the interpretation of key historical developments, such as the Enlightenment, modernization, and emancipation, and key political events like those that occurred in 1789, 1968, and 1989. Patrick Deneen argues that the "current elite" should be replaced with "a better aristocracy brought about by a muscular populism" to advance the "common good", with the common good loosely defined as "integration" that includes the reunification of church and state. While national conservatism distances itself from fascism, some forms of what scholars like Roger Griffin term "para-fascism"—a type of authoritarian nationalism that seeks to preserve traditional structures rather than pursue a palingenetic ultranationalism—are seen as aligning more closely with the tenets of national conservatism than with pure fascism. In his 2022 book Conservatism: A Rediscovery, Hazony wrote that "in the political arena, conservatism refers to a standpoint that regards the recovery, restoration, elaboration, and repair of national and religious traditions as the key to maintaining a nation and strengthening it through time." National conservatism distances itself from fascism, viewing it—along with liberalism and socialism—as aspects of modernity that "disconnect human designs from normative order", instead calling for the "restoration and order" of social, moral, and political structures.

Social policies

Ideologically, national conservatism is not uniform; adherents have broadly expressed support for nationalism, patriotism, cultural assimilationism, and monoculturalism. At the same time, there is expressed opposition to internationalism, racial politics, multiculturalism, and globalism. National conservatives adhere to a form of cultural nationalism that emphasizes the preservation of national identity as well as cultural identity. As a result, many favor assimilation into the dominant culture, restrictions on immigration and strict law and order policies. National conservative parties support traditional family values, gender roles, and the public role of religion, being critical of the separation of church and state. According to the Austrian political scientist Sieglinde Rosenberger, "national conservatism praises the family as a home and a center of identity, solidarity, and tradition." It opposes the "1968 agenda" of gender-related emancipation.

Economic policies

National conservatives in different countries do not necessarily share a common position on economic policy. Their views may range from support of corporatism, mixed economy, and protectionism to a more laissez-faire approach. In the first, more common case, national conservatives can be distinguished from liberal conservatives, for whom free market economic policies, deregulation, and tight spending are the main priorities. Some commentators have indeed identified a growing gap between national and economically liberal conservatism: "Most parties of the Right [today] are run by economically liberal conservatives who, in varying degrees, have marginalised social, cultural and national conservatives." National conservatism developed its economic alternative to liberalism through political representatives in post-communist Europe, most notably Poland and Hungary, and the emergence of "pro-worker conservatism" in the United States. Throughout the 1990s, economic positions of national conservatives were largely fusionist. The works of Leo Strauss and Eric Voegelin have served as building blocks for the modern national conservative movement's socio-economic policies. Strauss's indictment of capitalism as 'economism' through the reduction of individual needs to consumption plays a role in national conservative thought, which argues for solidarism and an increased statist role in the economy to bring about a moralizing "financial nationalism" in opposition to communism and the individualism of liberalism. Depending on the country, this can include increased support of protectionism; increased state social spending for "pro-worker" and "pro-family" conservatism; the re-nationalization of banks and strategic enterprises; and opposing tax breaks. It supports "social nativism" in East Asian state-led development as a socio-economic policy paradigm.

Foreign policy

National conservatives usually support a foreign policy that upholds the interests of their nation. They lean towards militarism, unilateralism, and isolationism. They reject the internationalism and multilateralism that have characterized the modern age. They often have a negative view of the United Nations, feeling that its multinational agenda erodes their unique national identity, as well as the European Union and other international organizations.

Geography and demographics

National conservatism has gained ground across the Western world in recent decades, but has been particularly strong in certain countries and among certain demographic groups. Costas Panayotakis has argued that the economic inequality engendered by neoliberalism contributed to the rise of national conservatism.

In the 2020s, national conservatism was described as causing a "new global divide", particularly in the Western world. Several very close elections pitted a national conservative candidate against a liberal candidate, with national conservative candidates sometimes winning. These included the 2024 United States presidential election (Donald Trump defeated Kamala Harris by 1.5%) and the 2025 Polish presidential election (Karol Nawrocki defeated Rafał Trzaskowski by 1.8%). On the other hand, in the 2025 Romanian presidential election centrist Nicușor Dan defeated the far-right national conservative George Simion by 7.2%, though the Financial Times still described this as a close election.

National conservatism has gained notable ground in post-communist Eastern Europe (east of the former Iron Curtain). The national conservative and far-right Alternative for Germany is strongest in former East Germany. The Law and Justice party in Poland is strongest in Poland B, with Poland considered a post-communist European country. Russia, under the rule of Vladimir Putin, has waged an irredentist invasion of Ukraine since 2022. Putin has implemented and espoused national conservatism through his affiliated United Russia party.

Regional or regionalist parties can be nationalist or national conservative, without aligning with the country to which the region belongs. South Tyrol is a notable example, as "national conservative" parties there represent its German-speaking majority and identify with neighbouring Austria, with which South Tyrol shares cultural and historical ties.

List of national conservative political parties

Current national conservative parties, or parties with national conservative factions

The following political parties have been characterised as being ideologically influenced by national conservatism:

• Albania: Democratic Party of Albania,
• Argentina: Democratic Party,
• Austria: Freedom Party of Austria, Alliance for the Future of Austria
• Australia: Pauline Hanson's One Nation
• Belgium: Flemish Interest
• Bosnia and Herzegovina: Party of Democratic Progress
• Bulgaria: Union of Democratic Forces, Democrats for a Strong Bulgaria, Democratic Party,
• Cambodia: Cambodian People's Party,
• Croatia: Croatian Democratic Union,
• Czech Republic: ANO 2011
• Denmark: Danish People's Party, The New Right,
• Estonia: Isamaa
• Finland: Finns Party
• France: National Rally, France Arise, Action Française,
• Germany: Alternative for Germany, The Republicans,
• Greece: Greek Solution, New Right,
• Hungary: Fidesz, Christian Democratic People's Party, Our Homeland Movement, Independent Smallholders Party, Jobbik
• India: Bharatiya Janata Party, Hindu Mahasabha
• Indonesia: Great Indonesia Movement Party, Golkar
• Israel: Likud,
• Italy: Brothers of Italy, South Tyrolean Freedom
• Japan: Liberal Democratic Party
• Latvia: National Alliance,
• Lithuania: Homeland Union,
• Malaysia: United Malays National Organisation
• Monaco: Monegasque National Union
• Netherlands: Forum for Democracy,
• North Macedonia: VMRO-DPMNE,
• Norway: Progress Party,
• Panama: Panameñista Party
• Paraguay: Colorado Party
• Philippines: Nacionalista Party
• Poland: United Right, (Law and Justice and United Poland), Confederation Liberty and Independence (factions, mainly National Movement), Right Wing of the Republic
• Portugal: CDS – People's Party, Chega
• Romania: National Identity Bloc in Europe (Greater Romania Party and United Romania Party), Alliance for the Union of Romanians, People's Movement Party, Christian Democratic National Peasants' Party, Romanian National Conservative Party
• Russia: All-Russia People's Front (United Russia and Rodina), Great Russia, Russian All-People's Union
• Serbia: Democratic Party of Serbia, Serbian Radical Party, Serbian Patriotic Alliance, United Serbia, Serbian People's Party, People's Peasant Party, New Serbia, Better Serbia, Fatherland, People's Freedom Movement, Serbian Party Oathkeepers, Serbian Right, Obraz, Movement for the Restoration of the Kingdom of Serbia
• Singapore: People's Action Party
• Slovakia: Slovak National Party, Republic, We Are Family
• Slovenia: Slovenian Democratic Party
• South Korea: People Power Party
• Spain: Vox
• Sweden: Sweden Democrats
• Switzerland: Swiss People's Party, Federal Democratic Union
• Taiwan: Kuomintang (Chinese Nationalist Party), New Party, Taiwan Solidarity Union
• Thailand: Palang Pracharath Party, United Thai Nation Party{{cite news|quote=Even if the ultra-conservative United Thai Nation Party wins, it would be unable to form a coalition government without Bhumjaithai Party|work=CNBC|title=Thailand election: Campaign freebies may be a 'band-aid solution' with fiscal risks
• Turkey: People's Alliance (Justice and Development Party, Nationalist Movement Party and Great Union Party), Nation Alliance (factions, mainly Good Party) and Homeland Party, National Path Party, Key Party, Victory Party, Nation Party, New Turkey Party
• Ukraine: Congress of Ukrainian Nationalists, People's Front, Svoboda, National Corps, Right Sector
• United Kingdom: Democratic Unionist Party, Traditional Unionist Voice, Reform UK, UK Independence Party
• United States: Republican Party (factions)
• Uruguay: Open Cabildo

Defunct or formerly national conservative parties, or parties with national conservative factions

• Armenia: Law and Unity
• Australia: Fraser Anning's Conservative National Party
• Belgium: Rexist Party, Vlaams Blok
• Brazil: Brazilian Integralist Action
• Canada: Union Nationale
• Czech Republic: Realists
• Czechoslovakia: Czechoslovak National Democracy, Party of National Unity
• France: Rally for the Republic
• Germany: German National People's Party, Deutsche Rechtspartei, The Blue Party, German People's Union
• Hungary: Hungarian Democratic Forum, Unity Party
• India: Bharatiya Jana Sangh
• Iran: Rastakhiz Party
• Israel: National Union (Hatikva), Union of Right-Wing Parties
• Italy: National Alliance, The Right
• Moldova: Șor Party
• Norway: Fatherland League
• Poland: National Democracy, League of Polish Families, Kukiz'15
• Portugal: National Union
• Romania: Conservative Party,
• Slovakia: Slovak People's Party, Slovak National Party, People's Party – Movement for a Democratic Slovakia, Conservative Democrats of Slovakia
• South Africa: National Party
• South Korea: Democratic Republican Party Democratic Justice Party, New Korea Party, Liberty Korea Party
• Spain: CEDA, People's Alliance
• Yugoslavia: Yugoslav Radical Union, Yugoslav National Movement

National conservative groups in the European Parliament

• European Conservatives and Reformists Party, European Conservatives and Reformists
• Patriots.eu, Patriots for Europe
• Europe of Sovereign Nations, Europe of Sovereign Nations

References

References

1. Heywood, Andrew. (2017). "Political Ideologies: An Introduction". Palgrave Macmillan.
2. (2013). "Oxford Handbook of Political Ideologies". OUP Oxford.
3. Sibarium, Aaron. (2019-08-15). "National Conservatism: A Guide for the Perplexed".
4. Gallagher, Brenden. (2019-08-11). "The national conservatism movement just began—does it have a future?".
5. Littlejohn, Brad. (Summer 2023). "National Conservatism, Then and Now".
6. ANDREW., HEYWOOD. (2018). "ESSENTIALS OF POLITICAL IDEAS : for a level.". PALGRAVE.
7. (2004). "Varieties of conservatism in America". Hoover Institution Press.
8. (7 November 2014). "Mediations of social life in the 21st century".
9. "National Conservatism - ECPS".
10. (2010). "Origin, Ideology and Transformation of Political Parties: East-Central and Western Europe Compared". Routledge.
11. Traynor, Ian. (4 April 2006). "The EU's weary travellers". [[The Guardian]].
12. Heywood, Andrew. (2017). "Political Ideologies: An Introduction". Palgrave Macmillan.
13. Mandal, V. C.. (2007). "Dictionary of Public Administration". Sarup & Sons.
14. Ferraresi, Mattia. (2024-01-29). "Nationalists Claim They Want to Redefine Conservatism, but They're Not Sure What It Is".
15. O'Sullivan, John. (2018-04-09). "Hungary Embraces National Conservatism".
16. Chotiner, Isaac. (2021-08-10). "Why Conservatives Around the World Have Embraced Hungary's Viktor Orbán".
17. O'Sullivan, John. (2018-04-09). "Hungary Embraces National Conservatism - Danube Institute".
18. (15 May 2023). "Who are 'national conservatives' and what do they want?".
19. Meaney, Thomas. "Trumpism After Trump: Will the movement outlive the man?".
20. Beauchamp, Zack. (2019-07-17). "Trump and the dead end of conservative nationalism".
21. "Overview".
22. (September 2022). "The Two Faces of the 'Global Right': Revolutionary Conservatives and National-Conservatives". [[SAGE Publications]].
23. (March 20, 2025). "The American and Russian right are aligning". The Economist.
24. Griffin, Roger. (1991). "The Nature of Fascism". Pinter.
25. Hazony, Yoram. (2022). "Conservatism: A Rediscovery". Forum.
26. Luban, Daniel. (2019-07-26). "The Man Behind National Conservatism: Yoram Hazony has written the closest thing to a manifesto for intellectuals on the right.".
27. Robinson, Peter M.. (2022-06-22). "Yoram Hazony Rediscovers Conservatism".
28. Baker, Gerard. (2024-01-18). "Yoram Hazony and the Future of Conservatism - Opinion: Free Expression - WSJ Podcasts".
29. Ferraresi, Mattia. (April 10, 2020). "Nationalists Claim They Want to Redefine Conservatism, but They're Not Sure What It Is". Graham Holdings Company.
30. Franklin, Peter. (9 March 2023). "National conservatism has a future in Britain".
31. MacDougald, Park. (July 19, 2019). "What the Hell Is 'National Conservatism' Anyway?". New York Media.
32. Rosenberger, Sieglinde, [http://www.lolapress.org/elec3/artenglish/rose_e.htm Europe is swinging towards the right - What are the effects on women?] {{Webarchive. link. (28 September 2011 , University of Vienna, 2002. Retrieved 6 December 2010.)
33. National Questions, ''National Review'', Vol. 49, Issue 12, 30 June 1997, pp. 16-17
34. Littlejohn, Brad. "National Conservatism, Then and Now". National Affairs, Inc..
35. Dueck, Colin. (January 22, 2021). "Conservative Nationalism and US Foreign Policy". American Enterprise Institute.
36. (February 15, 2024). ""National conservatives" are forging a global front against liberalism". [[The Economist]].
37. Panayotakis, Costas. (June 1, 2020). "Neoliberalism, the Left and the Rise of the Far Right: On the Political and Ideological Implications of Capitalism's Subordination of Democracy". [[Democratic Theory]].
38. (June 2, 2025). "Caught Between Two Wests: New Global Divide Runs Straight Through Poland".
39. (May 25, 2025). "Europe’s far right is hammering at the door of power".
40. Ghodsee, Kristen. (2017). "Red Hangover: Legacies of Twentieth-Century Communism". [[Duke University Press]].
41. Kowalczyk, Krzysztof. (15 March 2014). "Typologia polskich partii politycznych według kryterium programowego". Środkowoeuropejskie Studia Polityczne.
42. Hirsch, Michael. (12 March 2022). "Putin's Thousand-Year War". [[Foreign Policy]].
43. (24 March 2022). "The cocktail of ideologies behind Vladimir Putin".
44. Burbank, Jane. (22 March 2022). "The Grand Theory Driving Putin to War". [[The New York Times]].
45. Bakke, Elisabeth. (2010). "Central and East European party systems since 1989". Cambridge University Press.
46. Colombres, Carlos A. Luque. (1991). "Patrón Costas en la historia". Ed. SEPA.
47. Gerard Braunthal. (2009). "Right-Wing Extremism in Contemporary Germany". Palgrave Macmillan UK.
48. Oliver Rathkolb. (2010). "The Paradoxical Republic: Austria 1945-2005". Berghahn Books.
49. "The American Far-Right Origins of Pauline Hanson’s Views on Islam".
50. Thompson, Wayne C.. (2008). "Western Europe 2008". Stryker Post Pubns.
51. Aflaki, Inga N.. (2016). "Entrepreneurship in the Polis". Routledge.
52. Tomic, Caroline. (2018). "Remigration to Post-Socialist Europe". LIT Verlag Münster.
53. (4 May 2023). ""Jsme pro EU, ale…" Havlíček vysvětluje nové ideologické směřování ANO - Seznam Zprávy".
54. Moreau, Patrick. (2011). "The Extreme Right in Europe: Current Trends and Perspectives". Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht.
55. (13 March 2019). "New antimuslim party heading for Danish parliament while neofascists and anti-Semites take it to the streets".
56. Siitonen, Aaretti. (2009). "Flags and hymns are not for Finns: An analysis of the European elections in Finland before the fact". [[The Finnish Institute of International Affairs]].
57. (13 April 2015). "Jean-Yves Camus". Lefigaro.fr.
58. Mayeur, Jean-Marie. (1987). "The Third Republic from Its Origins to the Great War, 1871-1914". Cambridge University Press.
59. Simon Franzmann. (2015). "Germany After the 2013 Elections: Breaking the Mould of Post-Unification Politics?". Ashgate.
60. Baumgartl, Bernd. (1995). "New Xenophobia in Europe". Martinus Nijhoff Publishers.
61. (16 May 2019). "High single-digit difference between ND, SYRIZA in new poll on Thurs". [[Naftemporiki]].
62. (14 May 2016). "Νέα Δεξιά, το κόμμα του Φ. Κρανιδιώτη".
63. (2010). "Origin, Ideology and Transformation of Political Parties: East-Central and Western Europe Compared". Routledge.
64. András Körösényi. (1999). "Government and Politics in Hungary". Central European University Press.
65. Pytlas, Bartek. (2015). "Radical Right Parties in Central and Eastern Europe: Mainstream Party Competition and Electoral Fortune". [[Routledge]].
66. Bonikowska, Monika. (2014). "India After The Elections". Centre for International Relations.
67. Misra, Amalendu. (1999). "Savarkar and the Discourse on Islam in Pre-Independent India". Journal of Asian History.
68. Lee, Doreen. (2016). "Activist Archives: Youth Culture and the Political Past in Indonesia". Duke University Press.
69. Hitchcock, Michael. (1997). "Images of Malay-Indonesian Identity". OUP.
70. (July 2012). "The short life of the "National Unity Government"". [[Konrad Adenauer Foundation]].
71. Watzal, Ludwig. (1999). "Peace enemies: the past and present conflict between Israel and Palestine". PASSIA.
72. Andrea Carla. (2016). "Pro-independence Movements and Immigration: Discourse, Policy and Practice". BRILL.
73. (1 November 2021). "Japan's ruling conservatives have been returned to power, but amid voter frustration, challenges lurk for Kishida". [[The Conversation (website).
74. Ganesan. (2015). "Bilateral Legacies in East and Southeast Asia". Institute of Southeast Asian Studies.
75. (2017). "The Baltic Sea Region: a Comprehensive Guide". Berliner Wissenschafts-Verlag.
76. Jan Senkyr. (2013). "Political Awakening in Malaysia". KAS International Reports.
77. (2018). "Social Informatics, 10th International Conference, SocInfo 2018, Proceedings, Part I". Springer Nature.
78. Klaus Wahl. (2020). "The Radical Right: Biopsychosocial Roots and International Variations". Springer Nature.
79. Heywood, Andrew. (2017). "Political Ideologies: An Introduction". Palgrave Macmillan.
80. (2019). "Global Election Review 2019". Solace Global.
81. Koch, Mark. (21 April 2013). "Return of the conservatives". [[Deutsche Welle]].
82. Teehankee, Julio. (2016). "Weak State, Strong Presidents: Situating the Duterte Presidency in Philippine Political Time". Journal of Developing Societies.
83. (2010). "Origin, Ideology and Transformation of Political Parties: East-Central and Western Europe Compared". Routledge.
84. Krzypinski, Dariusz. (2017). "Political Communication and European Parliamentary Elections in Times of Crisis". Palgrave Macmillan.
85. (10 October 2019). "Sejm und Senat: Zur Urne in der Woiwodschaft Lubuskie". MOZ.de.
86. Monika Sieradzka. (11 October 2019). "Regierungspartei PiS ist der Favorit". [[Mitteldeutscher Rundfunk]].
87. (15 September 2017). "The Baltic Sea Region: A Comprehensive Guide: History, Politics, Culture and Economy of a European Role Model". Berliner Wissenschafts-Verlag.
88. David Art. (2011). "The Extreme Right in Europe". Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht.
89. (7 October 2019). "Socialist Antonio Costa wins Portugal election, will continue 'contraption' coalition". [[Euronews]].
90. Narcis George Matache. (3 May 2018). "Top 30 partide politice din România". The New Federalist.
91. "Elections 2020: A small victory for the right, but Romania won't deviate from its Western path".
92. (24 December 2020). "The Center Holds in Romania, but a New Far-Right Party Spells Trouble".
93. (23 March 2017). "Mihail Neamțu, după atentatul de la Londra | Marea moschee comandată de Erdogan în mijlocul Bucureştiului trebuie să fie un proiect mort şi îngropat".
94. "Traian Băsescu: "PMP nu va fi de acord cu transformarea UE într-o uriaşă moschee"".
95. (21 May 2019). "VIDEO Traian Băsescu: Sunt un adversar neîmpăcat al transformării Europei într-o moschee / Laicizarea începe să devină o vulnerabilitate - Alegeri Europarlamentare 2019 - HotNews.ro".
96. (19 May 2014). "People's Movement Party (PMP)". The Democratic Society.
97. (26 July 2017). "Parlamentarii PMP s-au întâlnit cu membri ai Congresului SUA: Susținem familia tradițională".
98. "Referendumul pentru familie: Cum se poziţionează politicienii faţă de evenimentul din weekend".
99. (6 March 2012). "Russia parliament elections: How the parties line up". BBC.
100. (2013). "Power and Policy in Putin's Russia". Routledge.
101. "Is 'National Conservatism' the New Ideology of the Russian People? / Diena". Diena.lv.
102. Bluhm, Katharina. (2018). "New Conservatives in Russia and East Central Europe". Routledge.
103. (8 February 2018). "Russia election: Who are Vladimir Putin's challengers?". [[Deutsche Welle]].
104. Berger, Mark. (2014). "Rethinking the Third World". Macmillan.
105. (16 March 2022). "Korean Dilemma". [[The Statesman (India)]].
106. (2013). "The Welfare State as Crisis Manager: Explaining the Diversity of Policy Responses to Economic Crisis". Palgrave Macmillan.
107. (2013). "The Political Ecology of the Metropolis: Metropolitan Sources of Electoral Behaviour in Eleven Countries". ECPR Press.
108. (13 January 2020). "Tsai wants to continue her balancing act". International Politics and Society Journal.
109. "Thailand". [[De Agostini]].
110. Bayat, Asef. (2013). "Post-Islamism". Oxford University Press.
111. (24 July 2007). "Erdoğan's Triumph". [[Financial Times]].
112. Carkoglu, Ali. (2004). "Turkey and the European Union: Domestic Politics, Economic Integration and International Dynamics". Routledge.
113. (25 June 2018). "++ In Türkei festgenommene Deutsche wieder frei ++ Erdogan zum Sieger erklärt++". watson.
114. (24 June 2018). "Auszählung in der Türkei läuft: Erdogans Vorsprung schmilzt". Weser-Kurier.
115. (24 June 2018). "Schüsse! Politiker der Opposition bei Wahl getötet". Morgenpost.
116. (26 June 2018). "Nach Erdogan-Wahl und Diktator-Vergleich: EU-Beitrittsverhandlungen "zum Stillstand gekommen"". Kreiszeitung.
117. (24 June 2018). "Türkei-Wahlen: Oppositionspolitiker in Osttürkei getötet". Rhein-Neckar-Zeitung.
118. (26 December 2012). "Svoboda: The rise of Ukraine's ultra-nationalists". BBC News.
119. (9 June 2019). "Ярош, Тягнибок та Білецький таки сформували єдиний список на вибори".
120. O'Reilly, Gerry. (2019). "Aligning Geopolitics, Humanitarian Action and Geography in Times of Conflict". Springer.
121. Chait, Jonathan. (12 Oct 2022). "How to Make a Semi-Fascist Party".
122. Goldman, Rene. (2017). "A Childhood Adrift". Azrieli Foundation.
123. Heywood, Andrew. (2018). "Essentials of Political Ideas". Palgrave.
124. Roett, Riordan. (1999). "Brazil: Politics in a Patrimonial Society".
125. Anne Griffin. (1984). "Quebec, the Challenge of Independence". Fairleigh Dickinson Univ Press.
126. (2010). "Origin, Ideology and Transformation of Political Parties: East-Central and Western Europe Compared". Ashgate.
127. Hloušek, Vít. (2016). "Origin, Ideology and Transformation of Political Parties". Routledge.
128. (2005). "Legitimacy and the European Union: The Contested Polity". Routledge.
129. Ulrike Ehret. (2012). "Church, Nation and Race: Catholics and Antisemitism in Germany and England, 1918-45". Manchester University Press.
130. Stone, Jon. (24 September 2017). "German elections: Far-right wins MPs for first time in half a century". The Independent.
131. (2017-10-12). "Neue konservative Partei: Petry bekennt sich öffentlich zur Gründung der "Blauen Partei"".
132. Stiftung, Bertelsmann. (2009). "Strategies for Combating Right-wing Extremism in Europe". Brookings Institution Press.
133. Häkkinen, Ville. (2019). "From Counterrevolution to Consolidation?". JYU.
134. Baxter, Craig. (1969). "The Jana Sangh: a biography of an Indian political party". University of Pennsylvania Press.
135. Matin-Asgard, Afshin. (2018). "Both Eastern and Western". CUP.
136. Marco Tarchi. (2007). "Recalcitrant Allies: The Conflicting Foreign Policy Agenda of the ''Alleanza Nazionale'' and the ''Lega Nord''". Ashgate.
137. Robert Leonardi. (February 2024). "Government and Politics of Italy". Macmillan International Higher Education.
138. (2013). "Political Handbook of the World 2013". SAGE Publications.
139. Sjølyst-Jackson, Peter. (2010). "Troubling Legacies: Migration, Modernism and Fascism in the Case of Knut Hamsun". Bloomsbury Academic.
140. Bohler, Jochen. (2019). "Civil War in Central Europe, 1918-1921: The Reconstruction of Poland". Oxford University Press.
141. (2012). "Europeanisation and Party Politics: How the EU affects Domestic Actors, Patterns and Systems". ECPR Press.
142. Gwiazda, Anna. (2015). "Democracy in Poland". Routledge.
143. (3 November 2015). "Kto jest kim u Kukiza". [[Polityka]].
144. Rossolinski, Grzegorz. (2014). "Stepan Bandera: The Life and Afterlife of a Ukrainian Nationalist". Columbia University Press.
145. (4 July 2021). "Ludovic Orban: PNL trebuie să sprijine valorile tradiţionale ale românilor - familia, biserica, satul / Avem nişte parteneri de guvernare care parcă nu s-au născut aici - Politic - HotNews.ro".
146. (4 July 2021). "Bătălia din PNL intră în faza ideologică. Ludovic Orban propune o orientare conservatoare, bazată pe biserică, familie, drapel și sat. Atac la USR: "Avem nişte parteneri de guvernare care de multe ori parcă nu s-au născut aici"".
147. (5 July 2021). "În lupta pentru șefia PNL din România, liderul partidului, Ludovic Orban vrea să întărească aripa conservatoare". Radio Europa Liberă.
148. (4 July 2021). "Ovidiu Raețchi (PNL): Ludovic Orban a ajuns să meargă pe drumul toxic al lui Viktor Orban".
149. (21 March 2021). "Pronostic. Alegerile din 2024, pe scena politică românească: Conservatorii PNL și PMP, contra progresiștii de la USR-PLUS".
150. (21 March 2021). "Rareş Bogdan: Nu suntem de acord cu înfierea copiilor de către cupluri ale minorităţilor sexuale, pentru că lucrul ăsta e o chestie care schimbă lumea/ Dacă cineva crede că va putea nouă să ne răpească bucuria de a spune "mamă", "tată", se înşală".
151. Camus, Jean-Yves. (2016). "Far-Right Politics in Europe". Harvard University Press.
152. Bátora, Jozef. (11 June 2010). "Hungary is the main issue in the Slovakian elections". Toute l'Europe.
153. Krabill, Ron. (2010). "Starring Mandela and Cosby: Media and the End(s) of Apartheid". University of Chicago Press.
154. {{lang. ko. 《현대 한국정치 이론: 역사 현실 1945 ~ 2011》 240p ~ 265p
155. Jun-Hyeok Kwak. (11 June 2013). "Nationalism and Democracy Revisited". Soongsil University.
156. Blinkhorn, Martin. (2002). "Democracy and Civil War in Spain 1932-1939". Routledge.
157. Dudek, Carolyn Marie. (2005). "EU Accession and Spanish Regional Development". Peter Lang.
158. Kuljić, Todor. (2017). "Post-Yugoslav Memory Culture". Lambert.