NASA lunar outpost concepts

History

1958 Lunex Project

Main article: Lunex Project

The Lunex Project, conceptualized in 1958, was a US Air Force plan for a crewed lunar landing prior to the Apollo Program in 1961. It envisaged a 21-person underground Air Force Base on the Moon by 1968 at a total cost of $7.5 billion.

1959 Project Horizon

Main article: Project Horizon

Project Horizon was a 1959 study regarding the United States Army's plan to establish a fort on the Moon by 1967. Heinz-Hermann Koelle, a German rocket engineer of the Army Ballistic Missile Agency (ABMA) led the Project Horizon study. It was proposed that the first landing would be carried out by two "soldier-astronauts" in 1965 and that more construction workers would soon follow. It was posited that through numerous launches (61 Saturn Is and 88 Saturn C-2s), 245 tons of cargo could be transported to the outpost by 1966.

On 8 June 1959, the US Army's Ballistic Missile Agency (ABMA) organized a task force called Project Horizon to assess the feasibility of constructing a military base on the Moon.

Project Horizon proposed using a series of Saturn launches to pre-construct an outpost while in Earth orbit, with the intention of subsequently delivering and landing the completed assembly on the Moon. Additional Saturn launches each month would then ship supplies to the inhabitants.

1984 Johnson Space Center lunar outpost concept

In 1984, with the Space Shuttle in service, a team based at the Johnson Space Center (JSC) made a feasibility study for NASA's return to the Moon. It anticipated later studies in using NASA's planned infrastructurethe Shuttle, a Shuttle-derived heavy lift vehicle, a space station, and an orbital transfer vehicleto build a permanent 18-crew Moon base sometime between 2005 and 2015.

Design details

The Space Shuttle was to have transported the empty 21,000-kilogram lunar lander and payload to the space station, where they would rendezvous with the 100 ton propellant module.

The first objective was the creation of a small semipermanently crewed "camp" on the lunar surface in 2005–2006.

NASA was to have launched a lunar orbiting space station in 2008–2009 to support the creation of a permanently crewed moonbase by 2009–2010.

This operational surface base would have contained an expanded mining facility, lunar materials processing pilot plants and a lunar agriculture research laboratory; pilot oxygen production and experimental mining facilities would have been landed previously.

The lunar surface facility would have grown to an 18-crew "advanced base" in 2013–2014, consisting of five habitation modules, a geochemical laboratory, chemical/biological lab, geochemical/petrology lab, a particle accelerator, a radio telescope, lunar oxygen, ceramics and metallurgy plants, two shops, three power units (90% lunar-materials derived), one earthmover/crane and three trailers/mobility units. The ultimate goal would be a self-sustaining moonbase by 2017–2018.

The following were the names of vehicles or mission steps associated with the JSC Moon Base:

• Mapper and L-2 Relay Satellite. Development: 1992–1996. First launch: 1996.
• Surface Explorer Rover. Development: 1995–1999. First launch: 1999.
• Expendable Lander. Development: 1995–1999. First launch: 1999.
• Network and Regolith Science. Development: 2002–2004.
• Manned Capsule / OTV. Development: 1999–2003. First launch: 2003.
• Expendable Ascent Stage. Development: 1999–2003. First launch: 2003.
• Lunar Orbital Facilities. Development: 2004–2008. First launch: 2008–2009.
• Camp, temporary manned. Development: 2000–2004. First launch: 2005–2006.
• Base, permanent manned. Development: 2004–2009. First launch: 2009–2010.
• Advanced Base. Development: 2008–2013. First launch: 2013–2014.
• Self-Sustaining Base. Development: 2012–2016. First launch: 2017–2018.

1989 Space Exploration Initiative ''90-Day Study on Human Exploration of the Moon and Mars''

Main article: Space Exploration Initiative

1992–1993 First Lunar Outpost

Main article: First Lunar Outpost

1993–1994 International Lunar Resources Exploration Concept

Main article: International Lunar Resources Exploration Concept

The International Lunar Resources Exploration Concept (ILREC) was a proposed mission architecture under President George H. W. Bush's Space Exploration Initiative (SEI) by Kent Joosten, an engineer at Johnson Space Center. The plan would have used the help of international partners, mainly the Soviet Union, to assemble a lunar base and sustainable lunar transportation service. The program was not able to get off the ground as it was proposed at the end of SEI's very short lifespan with the only surviving project being Space Station Freedom (now the International Space Station)

2005 Exploration Systems Architecture Study

Main article: Exploration Systems Architecture Study

The Exploration Systems Architecture Study (ESAS) is the official title of a large-scale, system-level study released by NASA in November 2005 in response to American president George W. Bush's announcement on 14 January 2004 of his goal of returning astronauts to the Moon and eventually Mars— known as the Vision for Space Exploration (and unofficially as "Moon, Mars and Beyond" in some aerospace circles, though the specifics of a human "beyond" program were vague).

2006 Reference Architecture

On 4 December 2006, NASA announced the conclusion of its Global Exploration Strategy and Lunar Architecture Study. The Lunar Architecture Study's purpose was to "define a series of lunar missions constituting NASA's Lunar campaign to fulfill the Lunar Exploration elements" of the Vision for Space Exploration. The result was a basic plan for a lunar outpost near one of the poles of the Moon, which would permanently house astronauts in six-month shifts. These studies were made before the discovery of water ice (5.6 ± 2.9% by mass) in a polar crater,{{Cite journal

A reference architecture was established for this outpost, based on a location on the rim of the Shackleton crater, located in the immense South Pole-Aitken basin, near the Moon's south pole. At a presentation on 4 December 2006, Doug Cooke, Deputy Associate Administrator, NASA Exploration Systems Mission Directorate, described an area "that is ... sunlit ... 75 to 80 percent of the time, and it is adjacent to a permanently dark region in which there is potentially volatiles that we can extract and use. ... This sunlit area is about the size of the Washington Mall." (approximately 1.25 km2). The Indian Chandrayaan-1 orbiter (2008–2009) helped in the determination of the precise location of the outpost.

Other locations considered for possible lunar outposts included the rim of Peary crater near the lunar north pole and the Malapert Mountain region on the rim of Malapert crater.

The outpost design included:

• Habitation modules
• Solar power units
• Unpressurized rovers
• In-Situ Resource Utilization (ISRU) unit
• Surface mobility carrier

The outpost would have been supplied by a mixed crew and cargo Altair lander, capable of bringing four astronauts and a payload of six tons to the Moon's surface.

As planned, an incremental buildup would begin with four-person crews making several seven-day visits to the moon until their power supplies, rovers and living quarters were operational. The first mission was envisioned for 2020. This would be followed by 180-day missions to prepare for journeys to Mars.

Later development

George W. Bush's Vision for Space Exploration was eventually replaced with President Barack Obama's space policy.

Updated plans envisioned NASA to construct an outpost over the five years between 2019 and 2024. The United States Congress directed that the U.S. portion, "shall be designated the Neil A. Armstrong Lunar Outpost".

2008 Concepts Study

On 6 June 2008, NASA announced a set of six research opportunities and requested proposals for research funding in response to the announcement. The overall budget for research conducted as part of this "Lunar Surface Systems Concepts Study" was believed to be $2 million. Proposals were selected and contracts awarded in August 2008 by the NASA Constellation Lunar Surface Systems Project Office (LSSPO).

2010–2011 surface system concept review

The LSSPO was established at the Johnson Space Center in August 2007. The LSSPO was studying lunar surface systems such as "habitation systems", ISRU, rovers, power production and storage, systems to meet science and exploration objectives and safety systems. The LSSPO was expected to conduct a surface system concept review in the 2010 or 2011 timeframe.

Artemis program

Main article: Artemis program#Artemis Base Camp

The Artemis program is a planned crewed spaceflight program carried out predominately by NASA, U.S. commercial spaceflight companies, and international partners such as the European Space Agency (ESA), JAXA, and the Canadian Space Agency (CSA) with the goal of landing "the first woman and the next man" on the Moon, specifically at the lunar south pole region by 2027. NASA sees Artemis as the next step towards the long-term goal of establishing a sustainable presence on the Moon, laying the foundation for private companies to build a lunar economy, and eventually sending humans to Mars. One primary target is Shackleton crater. In 2028 NASA plans on launching the Lunar Surface Asset, a small habitat to the surface of the Moon on either an SLS Block 1B or through an Artemis Support Mission on a commercial launcher. This would be the first crewed lunar base.

Artemis Base Camp

The US-led Artemis Program has scheduled several crewed landings at the Moon's south polar region, starting with Artemis III planned for mid-2027 at the earliest, setting up five temporary base camps with the Human Landing Systems (HLS) until Artemis VIII is planned to set up the fixed Foundational Surface Habitat (FSH) of the Artemis Base Camp in the 2030s.

Lunar Gateway

Main article: Lunar Gateway

A station in lunar orbit can serve as a communications hub, temporary habitation module, and holding area for rovers and other robots intended for an outpost on lunar ground. NASA leads a proposal for such a station, named Lunar Gateway. The omnibus spending bill passed by the U.S. Congress in March 2018 provided NASA with $504 million for preliminary studies during the 2019 fiscal year. The final funding amount enacted by Congress was slightly lower at $450 million.

Justification

NASA proposes six "Lunar exploration themes" to answer the question, "Why should we return to the Moon?"

1. Human Civilization: Extend human presence to the Moon to enable eventual settlement.
2. Scientific Knowledge: Pursue scientific activities that address fundamental questions about the history of Earth, the Solar System and the universe; and therefore, about humanities place in them.
3. Exploration Preparation: Test technologies, systems, flight operations, and exploration techniques to reduce the risks and increase the productivity of future missions to Mars and beyond.
4. Global Partnerships: Provide a challenging, shared and peaceful activity that unites nations in pursuit of common objectives.
5. Economic Expansion: Expand Earth's economic sphere, and conduct lunar activities with benefits to life on the home planet.
6. Public Engagement: Use a lively space exploration program to engage the public, encourage students, and help develop the high-technology workforce that will be required to address the challenges of tomorrow.

According to retired NASA Office of Inspector General Senior Special Agent Joseph Richard Gutheinz, Jr., if "NASA succeeds, we may very well see the first permanent manned presence on the moon in 2024." Gutheinz, who teaches risk management, once investigated the Mir Space Station fire and collision and frequently speaks out against unnecessary risks in space, although he considers settling the Moon to be an acceptable risk. --

Criticism

References

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4. "Lunex".
5. Dept. of the Army, Project Horizon, A U.S. Army Study for the Establishment of a Lunar Military Outpost, I, Summary (Redstone Arsenal, Alabama, 8 June 1959). See also: [http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-4204/ch1-5.html#Source15 Moonport: A History of Apollo Launch Facilities and Operations], {{Webarchive. link. (2019-07-14.)
6. Please refer to [[Saturn (rocket family)#NASA involvement. Saturn (rocket family)]].
7. (2008-12-04). "JSC Moon Base 1984".
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16. (2021-01-11). "Science Backroom Support for Sustained Lunar Surface".
17. Foust, Jeff. (2023-03-13). "NASA planning to spend up to $1 billion on space station deorbit module".
18. (11 September 2018). "Competition Seeks University Concepts for Gateway and Deep Space Exploration Capabilities". NASA.
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