Mariculture

Types

Onshore

Although it sounds like a paradox, mariculture is practiced onshore variously in tanks, ponds or raceways which are supplied with seawater. The distinguishing traits of onshore mariculture are the use of seawater rather than fresh, and that food and nutrients are provided by the water column, not added artificially, a great savings in cost and preservation of the species' natural diet. Examples of onshore mariculture include the farming of algae (including plankton and seaweed), marine finfish, and shellfish (like shrimp and oysters), in manmade saltwater ponds.

Inshore

Inshore mariculture is farming marine species such as algae, fish, and shellfish in waters affected by the tide, which include both littoral waters and their estuarine environments, such as bays, brackish rivers, and naturally fed and flushing saltwater ponds.

Popular cultivation techniques for inshore mariculture include creating or utilizing artificial reefs,{{cite web | access-date =23 April 2016 | access-date =23 April 2016}} pens, nets, and long-line arrays of floating cages moored to the bottom.

As a result of simultaneous global development and evolution over time, the term "ranch" being associated typically with inshore mariculture techniques has proved problematical. It is applied without any standardized basis to everything from marine species being raised in floating pens, nested within artificial reefs, tended in cages (by the hundreds and even thousands) in long-lined groups, and even operant conditioning migratory species to return to the waters where they were born for harvesting (also known as "enhanced stocking").

Open ocean

Raising marine organisms under controlled offshore in "open ocean" in exposed, high-energy marine environments beyond , is a relatively new approach to mariculture. Open ocean aquaculture (OOA) uses cages, nets, or long-line arrays that are moored or towed. Open ocean mariculture has the potential to be combined with offshore energy installation systems, such as wind-farms, to enable a more effective use of ocean space.

Research and commercial open ocean aquaculture facilities are in operation or under development in Panama, Australia, Chile, China, France, Ireland, Italy, Japan, Mexico, and Norway. , two commercial open ocean facilities were operating in U.S. waters, raising threadfin near Hawaii and cobia near Puerto Rico. An operation targeting bigeye tuna recently received final approval. All U.S. commercial facilities are currently sited in waters under state or territorial jurisdiction. The largest deep water open ocean farm in the world is raising cobia 12 km off the northern coast of Panama in highly exposed sites.{{ cite web |access-date=April 10, 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090823144656/http://ncseonline.org/nle/crsreports/04dec/RL32694.pdf |archive-date=August 23, 2009 cite web |access-date=April 9, 2010

Species

Algae

Main article: Algaculture

Algaculture involves the farming of species of algae, including microalgae (such as phytoplankton) and macroalgae (such as seaweed).

Uses of commercial and industrial algae cultivation include production of nutraceuticals such as omega-3 fatty acids (as algal oil) or natural food colorants and dyes, food, fertilizers, bioplastics, chemical feedstock (raw material), protein-rich animal/aquaculture feed, pharmaceuticals, and algal fuel, and can also be used as a means of pollution control and natural carbon sequestration.

Mariculture of seaweeds can be conducted in the open ocean to regenerate decimated fish populations by providing both habitat and the basis of a trophic pyramid for marine life. Natural seaweed ecosystems can possibly be replicated in the open ocean by creating growth conditions. Von Hertzen, Gamble, and others propose that this practice could be considered to be permaculture and thereby constitute marine permaculture. The concept envisions using artificial upwelling and floating, submerged platforms as substrate to replicate natural seaweed ecosystems. Following the principles of permaculture, seaweeds and fish from marine permaculture arrays can be sustainably harvested with the potential of sequestering atmospheric carbon, should seaweeds sink below a depth of one kilometer. As of 2020, successful trials had taken place in Hawaii, the Philippines, Puerto Rico and Tasmania. The idea received substantial public attention, notably featuring as a key solution covered by Damon Gameau’s documentary 2040 and in the book Drawdown: The Most Comprehensive Plan Ever Proposed to Reverse Global Warming.

Shellfish

Similarly to algae cultivation, shellfish can be farmed in multiple ways in both onshore and inshore mariculture: on ropes, in bags or cages, or directly on (or within) the bottom. Shellfish mariculture does not require feed or fertilizer inputs, nor insecticides or antibiotics, making shellfish mariculture a self-supporting system. Seed for shellfish cultivation is typically produced in commercial hatcheries, or by the farmers themselves. Among shellfish types raised by mariculture are shrimp, oysters (including artificial pearl cultivation), clams, mussels, abalone. |access-date = 23 April 2016 |url-status = dead |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20161010215256/http://www.oceangrown.com.au/wp-content/uploads/2013/10/Ocean-Grown-Information-Memorandum-Approved-Screen.pdf |archive-date = 10 October 2016

The Māori people of New Zealand retain traditions of farming shellfish. Ahumoana tawhito (ancient aquaculture): the translocation of toheroa (Paphies ventricosa) and other marine species by Māori by Vanessa Rona Taikato (2021).

Finfish

Finfish species raised in mariculture include salmon, cod, scallops, certain species of prawn, European lobsters, abalone and sea cucumbers. The most common method used to raise these species in the marine environment involves net pens or cages suspended in the ocean or large coastal embayments. These structures are anchored to the seabed or moored to floats, allowing high volumes of clean, naturally circulating seawater to flow through and supply the fish with oxygen while flushing away waste.

Fish species selected to be raised in saltwater pens do not have any additional artificial feed requirements, as they live off of the naturally occurring nutrients within the water column. Typical practice calls for the juveniles to be planted on the bottom of the body of water within the pen, which utilize more of the water column within their sea pen as they grow and develop.However, in intensive farming systems used for high-value finfish like salmon, the fish are typically fed manufactured, nutritionally complete pelleted feed, which is often delivered automatically to maintain efficient growth rates. The strategic site selection of these marine farms is crucial, requiring careful assessment of water depth, current speeds, shelter from storms, and proximity to shore to ensure optimal fish health and minimal environmental impact.

Environmental effects

Mariculture has rapidly expanded over the last two decades due to new technology, improvements in formulated feeds, greater biological understanding of farmed species, increased water quality within closed farm systems, greater demand for seafood products, site expansion and government interest. As a consequence, mariculture has been subject to some controversy regarding its social and environmental impacts. Commonly identified environmental impacts from marine farms are:

1. Wastes from cage cultures;
2. Farm escapees and invasives;
3. Genetic pollution and disease and parasite transfer;
4. Habitat modification.

As with most farming practices, the degree of environmental impact depends on the size of the farm, the cultured species, stock density, type of feed, hydrography of the site, and husbandry methods. The adjacent diagram connects these causes and effects.

Wastes from cage cultures

Mariculture of finfish can require a significant amount of fishmeal or other high protein food sources.

In cage culture, several different methods are used for feeding farmed fish – from simple hand feeding to sophisticated computer-controlled systems with automated food dispensers coupled with in situ uptake sensors that detect consumption rates. In coastal fish farms, overfeeding primarily leads to increased disposition of detritus on the seafloor (potentially smothering seafloor dwelling invertebrates and altering the physical environment), while in hatcheries and land-based farms, excess food goes to waste and can potentially impact the surrounding catchment and local coastal environment. This impact is usually highly local, and depends significantly on the settling velocity of waste feed and the current velocity (which varies both spatially and temporally) and depth.

Farm escapees and invasives

The impact of escapees from aquaculture operations depends on whether or not there are wild conspecifics or close relatives in the receiving environment, and whether or not the escapee is reproductively capable. Escapees can adversely impact local ecosystems through hybridization and loss of genetic diversity in native stocks, increase negative interactions within an ecosystem (such as predation and competition), disease transmission and habitat changes (from trophic cascades and ecosystem shifts to varying sediment regimes and thus turbidity).

The accidental introduction of invasive species is also of concern. Aquaculture is one of the main vectors for invasives following accidental releases of farmed stocks into the wild. One example is the Siberian sturgeon (Acipenser baerii) which accidentally escaped from a fish farm into the Gironde Estuary (Southwest France) following a severe storm in December 1999 (5,000 individual fish escaped into the estuary which had never hosted this species before).{{Cite journal

Genetic pollution, disease, and parasite transfer

One of the primary concerns with mariculture is the potential for disease and parasite transfer. Farmed stocks are often selectively bred to increase disease and parasite resistance, as well as improving growth rates and quality of products. Also, non-indigenous species which are farmed may have resistance to, or carry, particular diseases (which they picked up in their native habitats) which could be spread through wild populations if they escape into those wild populations. Such ‘new’ diseases would be devastating for those wild populations because they would have no immunity to them.

Habitat modification

With the exception of benthic habitats directly beneath marine farms, most mariculture causes minimal destruction to habitats. However, the destruction of mangrove forests from the farming of shrimps is of concern. Furthermore, they act as buffering systems whereby they reduce coastal erosion, and improve water quality for in situ animals by processing material and ‘filtering’ sediments.

Others

In addition, nitrogen and phosphorus compounds from food and waste may lead to blooms of phytoplankton, whose subsequent degradation can drastically reduce oxygen levels. If the algae are toxic, fish are killed and shellfish contaminated.{{cite web|publisher= UNEP, World Fisheries Trust|year=2002|url=http://www.cbd.int/doc/meetings/mar/temctre-01/official/temctre-01-02-en.pdf |title=THE EFFECTS OF MARICULTURE ON BIODIVERSITY}} These algal blooms are sometimes referred to as harmful algal blooms, which are caused by a high influx of nutrients, such as nitrogen and phosphorus, into the water due to run-off from land based human operations.

Over the course of rearing various species, the sediment on bottom of the specific body of water becomes highly metallic with influx of copper, zinc and lead that is being introduced to the area. This influx of these heavy metals is likely due to the buildup of fish waste, uneaten fish feed, and the paint that comes off the boats and floats that are used in the mariculture operations.

Sustainability

Mariculture development may be sustained by basic and applied research and development in major fields such as nutrition, genetics, system management, product handling, and socioeconomics. One approach uses closed systems that have no direct interaction with the local environment. However, investment and operational cost are currently significantly higher than with open cages, limiting closed systems to their current role as hatcheries. Farmed fish will also become crucial to feeding the growing human population that will potentially reach 9.8 billion by 2050.

Benefits

Sustainable mariculture promises economic and environmental benefits. Economies of scale imply that ranching can produce fish at lower cost than industrial fishing, leading to better human diets and the gradual elimination of unsustainable fisheries. Consistent supply and quality control has enabled integration in food market channels.

Technology and practices

List of species farmed

;Fish

• European sea bass
• Bigeye tuna
• Cobia
• Grouper
• Snapper
• Pompano
• Salmon
• Pearlspot
• Yellowtail jack
• Mullet
• Pomfret
• Barramundi{{cite web|title=The Bizarre and Inspiring Story of Iowa's Fish Farmers ;Shellfish/Crustaceans
• Abalone
• Oysters
• Prawn
• Mussels ;Plants
• Seaweeds

Scientific literature

Scientific literature on mariculture can be found in the following journals:

• Applied and Environmental Microbiology
• Aquaculture
• Aquaculture Research
• Journal of Marine Science
• Marine Resource Economics
• Ocean Shoreline Management
• Journal of Applied Phycology
• Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology
• Journal of Phycology
• Journal of Shellfish Research
• Reviews in Fish Biology and Fisheries
• Reviews in Fisheries Science

Notes

References

References

1. Fisheries, NOAA. (2022-12-29). "Understanding Marine Aquaculture {{!}} NOAA Fisheries".
2. (2022). "Transforming the Future of Marine Aquaculture: A Circular Economy Approach". Oceanography.
3. "6-bag Oyster Ranch, Squared Bags".
4. Arnason, Ragnar (2001) [http://www.fao.org/docrep/005/y1805e/y1805e07.htm#bm07.1 Ocean Ranching in Japan] In: ''The Economics of Ocean Ranching: Experiences, Outlook and Theory'', FAO, Rome. {{ISBN. 92-5-104631-X.
5. Masuda R. (1998). "Stock Enhancement in Japan: Review and perspective". Bulletin of Marine Science.
6. Lindell, Scott. (2012). "Acoustic Conditioning and Ranching of Black Sea Bass ''Centropristis striata'' in Massachusetts USA". Bull. Fish. Res. Agen..
7. (6 April 2017). "Aquaculture perspective of multi-use sites in the open ocean : the untapped potential for marine resources in the Anthropocene".
8. (September 2017). "The laboratory environmental algae pond simulator (LEAPS) photobioreactor: Validation using outdoor pond cultures of Chlorella sorokiniana and Nannochloropsis salina". Algal Research.
9. (January 2014). "Bioavailability and Potential Uses of Vegetarian Sources of Omega-3 Fatty Acids: A Review of the Literature". Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition.
10. (2013). "Food Enrichment with Omega-3 Fatty Acids".
11. (18 April 2013). "Alternative Sources of Omega-3 Fats: Can We Find a Sustainable Substitute for Fish?". Nutrients.
12. (1 March 2022). "Circular Bio-economy—Paradigm for the Future: Systematic Review of Scientific Journal Publications from 2015 to 2021". Circular Economy and Sustainability.
13. (2023). "Developing algae as a sustainable food source". Frontiers in Nutrition.
14. Flannery, Tim F. (Tim Fridtjof), 1956-. (31 July 2017). "Sunlight and seaweed : an argument for how to feed, power and clean up the world".
15. (2017). "Drawdown : the most comprehensive plan ever proposed to reverse global warming".
16. (May 23, 2019). "2040". Good Things Productions.
17. Von Herzen, Brian. (June 2019). "Reverse Climate Change with Marine Permaculture Strategies for Ocean Regeneration".
18. Powers, Matt. (10 July 2019). "Marine Permaculture with Brian Von Herzen Episode 113 A Regenerative Future".
19. (December 2019). "Marine Permaculture with Dr Brian von Herzen & Morag Gamble".
20. "Climate Foundation: What is Marine Permaculture?".
21. "Climate Foundation: Marine Permaculture".
22. "Assessing the Potential for Restoration and Permaculture of Tasmania's Giant Kelp Forests - Institute for Marine and Antarctic Studies".
23. (2019-11-11). "Seaweed researchers plant kelp tolerant of warmer waters".
24. McWilliams, James. (2009). "Food Only". Little, Brown and Company.
25. (2003-06-01). "Species studies in sea ranching: an overview and economic perspectives". Reviews in Fish Biology and Fisheries.
26. O'Bryen, P. J., & Lee, J. S. (2015). Offshore Aquaculture. In S. K. E. L. A. E. A. W. (Ed.), ''Encyclopedia of Marine Sciences''. Academic Press. pp. 313–322]
27. Read, P., & Fernandes, T. (2003). Management of environmental impacts of aquaculture in Europe. ''Aquaculture'', ''226''(1-4), 143. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0044-8486(03)00474-3
28. Fisheries, Agriculture and. (2012-02-17). "Sea ranching systems".
29. Tacon, A. G. J. (2020). Responsible aquaculture feed development: a global perspective. ''Aquaculture Research'', ''51''(2), 488–489. https://doi.org/10.1111/are.14449
30. Beveridge, M. C. M. (2004). ''Cage Aquaculture'' (3rd ed.). Blackwell Publishing. pp. 37–40]
31. DeVoe, M.R.. (1994). "Aquaculture and the marine environment: policy and management issues and opportunities in the United States". Bull. Natl. Res. Inst. Aquacult..
32. (2003). "Management of environmental impacts of marine aquaculture in Europe". Aquaculture.
33. Ross, A. (1997). ''Leaping in the Dark: A Review of the Environmental Impacts of Marine Salmon Farming in Scotland and Proposals for Change''. Scottish Environment Link, Perth, Scotland.
34. (1997). "Regulating the local environmental impact of intensive marine fish farming I. The concept of the MOM system (Modelling-Ongrowing fish farms-Monitoring)". Aquaculture.
35. Jennings, S., Kaiser, M.J., Reynolds, J.D. (2001). Marine Fisheries Ecology. Blackwell, Victoria.
36. (1995). "The environmental impact of marine fish culture: Towards a sustainable future". Marine Pollution Bulletin.
37. Originally, a lot of fishmeal went to waste due to inefficient feeding regimes and poor digestibility of formulated feeds which resulted in poor [[feed conversion ratio]]s.Forrest B, Keeley N, Gillespie P, Hopkins G, Knight B, Govier D. (2007). Review of the ecological effects of marine finfish aquaculture: final report. Prepared for Ministry of Fisheries. Cawthron Report No. 1285.
38. (2001). "Encyclopedia of Ocean Sciences". Academic Press.
39. Nell, J.A.. (2002). "Farming triploid oysters". Aquaculture.
40. Pfeiffer, T.. (2010). "Recirculation Technology: the future of aquaculture". Resource, Engineering & Technology for a Sustainable World.
41. (2005). "Growth and mortality of sibling triploid and diploid Sydney rock oysters, Saccostrea glomerata (Gould), in the Camden Haven River". Aquaculture Research.
42. (2001). "ECOLOGY: Aquaculture--A Gateway for Exotic Species". Science.
43. "Wilderness Connect".
44. US EPA, OW. (2013-06-03). "Harmful Algal Blooms".
45. (2016-04-01). "The effects of mariculture on heavy metal distribution in sediments and cultured fish around the Pearl River Delta region, south China". Chemosphere.
46. Stokstad, Erik. (2006-11-03). "Global Loss of Biodiversity Harming Ocean Bounty". Science.
47. (2020-12-03). "The future of food from the sea". Nature.
48. Katavic, Ivan. (1999). "Mariculture in the New Millennium". Agriculturae Conspectus Scientificus.
49. (1999). "Green grow the fishes-oh? Environmental attributes in marketing aquaculture products". Aquaculture Economics & Management.
50. (2007). "Management of productivity, environmental effects and profitability of shellfish aquaculture — the Farm Aquaculture Resource Management (FARM) model". Aquaculture.