Fumaric acid

Biosynthesis and occurrence

It is produced in eukaryotic organisms from succinate in complex 2 of the electron transport chain via the enzyme succinate dehydrogenase.

Fumaric acid is found in fumitory (Fumaria officinalis), bolete mushrooms (specifically Boletus fomentarius var. pseudo-igniarius), lichen, and Iceland moss.

Fumarate is an intermediate in the citric acid cycle used by cells to produce energy in the form of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) from food. It is formed by the oxidation of succinate by the enzyme succinate dehydrogenase. Fumarate is then converted by the enzyme fumarase to malate.

Human skin naturally produces fumaric acid when exposed to sunlight.

Fumarate is also a product of the urea cycle.

Uses

Food

Fumaric acid has been used as a food acidulant since 1946. It is approved for use as a food additive in the EU, USA and Australia and New Zealand. As a food additive, it is used as an acidity regulator and can be denoted by the E number E297. It is generally used in beverages and baking powders for which requirements are placed on purity. Fumaric acid is used in the making of wheat tortillas as a food preservative and as the acid in leavening. It is generally used as a substitute for tartaric acid and occasionally in place of citric acid, at a rate of 1 g of fumaric acid to every ~1.5 g of citric acid, in order to add sourness, similarly to the way malic acid is used. As well as being a component of some artificial vinegar flavors, such as "Salt and Vinegar" flavored potato chips, it is also used as a coagulant in stove-top pudding mixes.

The European Commission Scientific Committee on Animal Nutrition, part of DG Health, found in 2014 that fumaric acid is "practically non-toxic" but high doses are probably nephrotoxic after long-term use.

Medicine

Fumaric acid was developed as a medicine to treat the autoimmune condition psoriasis in the 1950s in Germany as a tablet containing 3 esters, primarily dimethyl fumarate, and marketed as Fumaderm by Biogen Idec in Europe. Biogen would later go on to develop the main ester, dimethyl fumarate, as a treatment for multiple sclerosis.

In patients with relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis, the ester dimethyl fumarate (BG-12, Biogen) significantly reduced relapse and disability progression in a phase 3 trial. It activates the Nrf2 antioxidant response pathway, the primary cellular defense against the cytotoxic effects of oxidative stress.

Other uses

Fumaric acid is used in the manufacture of polyester resins and polyhydric alcohols and as a mordant for dyes.

Fumaric acid can be used to make 6-methylcoumarin.

When fumaric acid is added to their feed, lambs produce up to 70% less methane during digestion.

Synthesis

Fumaric acid is produced based on catalytic isomerisation of maleic acid in aqueous solutions at low pH. It precipitates from the reaction solution. Maleic acid is accessible in large volumes as a hydrolysis product of maleic anhydride, produced by catalytic oxidation of benzene or butane.

Historic and laboratory routes

Fumaric acid was first prepared from succinic acid. A traditional synthesis involves oxidation of furfural (from the processing of maize) using chlorate in the presence of a vanadium-based catalyst.

Reactions

The chemical properties of fumaric acid can be anticipated from its component functional groups. This weak acid forms a diester, it undergoes bromination across the double bond, and it is a good dienophile.

Safety

The oral is 10 g/kg.

References

References

1. {{GESTIS
2. [https://books.google.com/books?id=tWJLUWT06BEC&dq=Human+skin+fumaric+acid&pg=PA159 Active Ingredients Used in Cosmetics: Safety Survey], Council of Europe. Committee of Experts on Cosmetic Products
3. "Fumaric Acid Foods".
4. "Current EU approved additives and their E Numbers".
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6. (8 September 2011). "Standard 1.2.4 - Labelling of ingredients".
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8. Eats, Serious. "The Science Behind Salt and Vinegar Chips".
9. European Commission. (22 January 2003). "European Commission Report of the Scientific Committee on Animal Nutrition on the Safety of Fumaric Acid".
10. (20 September 2012). "Placebo-Controlled Phase 3 Study of Oral BG-12 for Relapsing Multiple Sclerosis". N Engl J Med.
11. (1925). "Preparation of 6-Methylcoumarin and ITS Derivatives". Journal of the American Chemical Society.
12. (21 March 2008). "Scientists look to cut cow flatulence". phys.org.
13. Volhard, J. "Darstellung von Maleïnsäureanhydrid" Justus Liebig's Annalen der Chemie 1892, volume 268, page 255-6. {{doi. 10.1002/jlac.18922680108
14. Nicholas A. Milas. (1931). "Fumaric Acid". Organic Syntheses.
15. Herbert S. Rhinesmith. (1938). "α,β-Dibromosuccinic Acid". Organic Syntheses.