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Divided government in the United States
Divided control of the US government between political parties
Divided control of the US government between political parties
In the United States of America, divided government describes a situation in which one party controls the White House (executive branch), while another party controls one or both houses of the United States Congress (legislative branch). Divided government is seen by different groups as a benefit or as an undesirable product of the model of governance used in the U.S. political system. Under said model, known as the separation of powers, the state is divided into different branches.
Each branch has separate and independent powers and areas of responsibility so that the powers of one branch are not in conflict with the powers associated with the others. The degree to which the president of the United States has control of Congress often determines their political strength, such as the ability to pass sponsored legislation, ratify treaties, and have Cabinet members and judges approved. Early in the 19th century, divided government was rare. Since the 1970s it has become increasingly common.
Features
The model can be contrasted with the fusion of powers in a parliamentary system where the executive and legislature, and sometimes parts of the judiciary, are unified. Those in favor of divided government believe that such separations encourage more policing of those in power by the opposition, as well as limiting spending and the expansion of undesirable laws. Opponents argue that divided governments become lethargic, leading to many gridlocks.
In the late 1980s, Terry M. Moe, a professor of political science at Stanford University, examined the issue. He concluded that divided governments lead to compromise which can be seen as beneficial, but he also noticed that divided governments subvert performance and politicize the decisions of executive agencies. Further research has shown that during divided governments, legislatures will pass laws with sunset provisions in order to achieve a political consensus.
Party control of legislative and executive branches
List
Key
- D denotes the Democratic Party, R denotes the Republican Party.
- Bold indicates a divided government.
| Year | Senate | House | President | Year | Senate | House | President | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1857–1859 | D | D | D | |||||||||
| **1859–1861** | **D** | **R** | **D** | |||||||||
| 1861–1863 | R | R | R | Lincoln | ||||||||
| 1863–1865 | R | R | R | |||||||||
| **1865–1867** | **R** | **R** | **D** | A. Johnson | ||||||||
| **1867–1869** | **R** | **R** | **D** | |||||||||
| 1869–1871 | R | R | R | Grant | ||||||||
| 1871–1873 | R | R | R | |||||||||
| 1873–1875 | R | R | R | |||||||||
| **1875–1877** | **R** | **D** | **R** | |||||||||
| **1877–1879** | **R** | **D** | **R** | Hayes | ||||||||
| **1879–1881** | **D** | **D** | **R** | |||||||||
| 1881–1883 | R | R | R | Garfield / Arthur | ||||||||
| **1883–1885** | **R** | **D** | **R** | Arthur | ||||||||
| **1885–1887** | **R** | **D** | **D** | Cleveland | ||||||||
| **1887–1889** | **R** | **D** | **D** | |||||||||
| 1889–1891 | R | R | R | Harrison | ||||||||
| **1891–1893** | **R** | **D** | **R** | |||||||||
| 1893–1895 | D | D | D | Cleveland | ||||||||
| **1895–1897** | **R** | **R** | **D** | |||||||||
| 1897–1899 | R | R | R | McKinley | ||||||||
| 1899–1901 | R | R | R | |||||||||
| 1901–1903 | R | R | R | McKinley / T. Roosevelt | ||||||||
| 1903–1905 | R | R | R | T. Roosevelt | ||||||||
| 1905–1907 | R | R | R | |||||||||
| 1907–1909 | R | R | R | |||||||||
| 1909–1911 | R | R | R | Taft | ||||||||
| **1911–1913** | **R** | **D** | **R** | |||||||||
| 1913–1915 | D | D | D | Wilson | ||||||||
| 1915–1917 | D | D | D | |||||||||
| 1917–1919 | D | D | D | |||||||||
| **1919–1921** | **R** | **R** | **D** | |||||||||
| 1921–1923 | R | R | R | Harding | ||||||||
| 1923–1925 | R | R | R | Harding / Coolidge | ||||||||
| 1925–1927 | R | R | R | Coolidge | ||||||||
| 1927–1929 | R | R | R | |||||||||
| 1929–1931 | R | R | R | Hoover | ||||||||
| **1931–1933** | **R** | **D** | **R** | |||||||||
| 1933–1935 | D | D | D | F. Roosevelt | ||||||||
| 1935–1937 | D | D | D | |||||||||
| 1937–1939 | D | D | D | |||||||||
| 1939–1941 | D | D | D | |||||||||
| 1941–1943 | D | D | D | |||||||||
| 1943–1945 | D | D | D | |||||||||
| 1945–1947 | D | D | D | F. Roosevelt / Truman | ||||||||
| **1947–1949** | **R** | **R** | **D** | Truman | ||||||||
| 1949–1951 | D | D | D | |||||||||
| 1951–1953 | D | D | D | |||||||||
| 1953–1955 | R | R | R | Eisenhower | ||||||||
| **1955–1957** | **D** | **D** | **R** | |||||||||
| **1957–1959** | **D** | **D** | **R** | |||||||||
| **1959–1961** | **D** | **D** | **R** | |||||||||
| 1961–1963 | D | D | D | Kennedy | ||||||||
| 1963–1965 | D | D | D | Kennedy / Johnson | ||||||||
| 1965–1967 | D | D | D | Johnson | ||||||||
| 1967–1969 | D | D | D | |||||||||
| **1969–1971** | **D** | **D** | **R** | Nixon | ||||||||
| **1971–1973** | **D** | **D** | **R** | |||||||||
| **1973–1975** | **D** | **D** | **R** | Nixon / Ford | ||||||||
| **1975–1977** | **D** | **D** | **R** | Ford | ||||||||
| 1977–1979 | D | D | D | Carter | ||||||||
| 1979–1981 | D | D | D | |||||||||
| **1981–1983** | **R** | **D** | **R** | Reagan | ||||||||
| **1983–1985** | **R** | **D** | **R** | |||||||||
| **1985–1987** | **R** | **D** | **R** | |||||||||
| **1987–1989** | **D** | **D** | **R** | |||||||||
| **1989–1991** | **D** | **D** | **R** | G.H.W. Bush | ||||||||
| **1991–1993** | **D** | **D** | **R** | |||||||||
| 1993–1995 | D | D | D | Clinton | ||||||||
| **1995–1997** | **R** | **R** | **D** | |||||||||
| **1997–1999** | **R** | **R** | **D** | |||||||||
| **1999–2001** | **R** | **R** | **D** | |||||||||
| **2001–2003** | **D** | **R** | **R** | G.W. Bush | ||||||||
| 2003–2005 | R | R | R | |||||||||
| 2005–2007 | R | R | R | |||||||||
| **2007–2009** | **D** | **D** | **R** | |||||||||
| 2009–2011 | D | D | D | Obama | ||||||||
| **2011–2013** | **D** | **R** | **D** | |||||||||
| **2013–2015** | **D** | **R** | **D** | |||||||||
| **2015–2017** | **R** | **R** | **D** | |||||||||
| 2017–2019 | R | R | R | Trump | ||||||||
| **2019–2021** | **R** | **D** | **R** | |||||||||
| 2021–2023 | D | D | D | |||||||||
| **2023–2025** | **D** | **R** | **D** | |||||||||
| 2025–2027 | R | R | R | Trump |
Presidential impact
Many presidential elections produced what is known as a coattail effect, in which the success of a presidential candidate also leads to electoral success for other members of their party. In fact, all newly elected presidents except Zachary Taylor, Richard Nixon, and George H. W. Bush were accompanied by control of at least one house of Congress.
Presidents by congressional control and terms
Most columns are in numbers of years.
| No. | President | President's party | Elections won | Years served | Senate with | Senate opposed | House with | House opposed | Congress with | Congress divided | Congress opposed | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 17 | 18 | 19 | 20 | 21 | 22 | 23 | 24 | 25 | 26 | 27 | 28 | 29 | 30 | 31 | 32 | 33 | 34 | 35 | 36 | 37 | 38 | 39 | 40 | 41 | 42 | 43 | 44 | 45 | 46 | **47** | No. | President | President's party | Elections won | Years served | Senate with | Senate opposed | House with | House opposed | Congress with | Congress divided | Congress opposed | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| nowrap | George Washington | None | 2 | 8 | 8 | 0 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 0 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| nowrap | John Adams | Federalist | 1 | 4 | 4 | 0 | 4 | 0 | 4 | 0 | 0 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| nowrap | Thomas Jefferson | Democratic-Republican | 2 | 8 | 8 | 0 | 8 | 0 | 8 | 0 | 0 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| nowrap | James Madison | Democratic-Republican | 2 | 8 | 8 | 0 | 8 | 0 | 8 | 0 | 0 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| nowrap | James Monroe | Democratic-Republican | 2 | 8 | 8 | 0 | 8 | 0 | 8 | 0 | 0 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| nowrap | John Quincy Adams | nowrap | Democratic-Republican | nowrap | National-Republican | 1 | 4 | 0 | 4 | 2 | 2 | 0 | 2 | 2 | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| nowrap | Andrew Jackson | Democratic | 2 | 8 | 6 | 2 | 8 | 0 | 6 | 2 | 0 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| nowrap | Martin Van Buren | Democratic | 1 | 4 | 4 | 0 | 4 | 0 | 4 | 0 | 0 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| nowrap | William Harrison | Whig | 1 | 0.1 | 0.1 | 0 | 0.1 | 0 | 0.1 | 0 | 0 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| nowrap | John Tyler | nowrap | Whig | nowrap | Independent | 0 | 3.9 | 3.9 | 0 | 1.9 | 2 | 1.9 | 2 | 0 | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| nowrap | James Polk | Democratic | 1 | 4 | 4 | 0 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 0 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| nowrap | Zachary Taylor | Whig | 1 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| nowrap | Millard Fillmore | Whig | 0 | 3 | 0 | 3 | 0 | 3 | 0 | 0 | 3 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| nowrap | Franklin Pierce | Democratic | 1 | 4 | 4 | 0 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 0 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| nowrap | James Buchanan | Democratic | 1 | 4 | 4 | 0 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 0 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| nowrap | Abraham Lincoln | nowrap | Republican | nowrap | National Union | 2 | 4.1 | 4.1 | 0 | 4.1 | 0 | 4.1 | 0 | 0 | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| nowrap | Andrew Johnson | nowrap | National Union | nowrap | Democratic | 0 | 3.9 | 0 | 3.9 | 0 | 3.9 | 0 | 0 | 3.9 | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| nowrap | Ulysses Grant | Republican | 2 | 8 | 8 | 0 | 6 | 2 | 6 | 2 | 0 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| nowrap | Rutherford Hayes | Republican | 1 | 4 | 2 | 2 | 0 | 4 | 0 | 2 | 2 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| nowrap | James Garfield | Republican | 1 | 0.5 | 0 | 0.5 | 0.5 | 0 | 0 | 0.5 | 0 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| nowrap | Chester Arthur | Republican | 0 | 3.5 | 3.5 | 0 | 1.5 | 2 | 1.5 | 2 | 0 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| nowrap | Grover Cleveland | Democratic | 1 | 4 | 0 | 4 | 4 | 0 | 0 | 4 | 0 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| nowrap | Benjamin Harrison | Republican | 1 | 4 | 4 | 0 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 0 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| nowrap | Grover Cleveland | Democratic | 1 | 4 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 0 | 2 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| nowrap | William McKinley | Republican | 2 | 4.5 | 4.5 | 0 | 4.5 | 0 | 4.5 | 0 | 0 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| nowrap | Theodore Roosevelt | Republican | 1 | 7.5 | 7.5 | 0 | 7.5 | 0 | 7.5 | 0 | 0 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| nowrap | William Taft | Republican | 1 | 4 | 4 | 0 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 0 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| nowrap | Woodrow Wilson | Democratic | 2 | 8 | 6 | 2 | 6 | 2 | 6 | 0 | 2 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| nowrap | Warren Harding | Republican | 1 | 2.4 | 2.4 | 0 | 2.4 | 0 | 2.4 | 0 | 0 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| nowrap | Calvin Coolidge | Republican | 1 | 5.6 | 5.6 | 0 | 5.6 | 0 | 5.6 | 0 | 0 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| nowrap | Herbert Hoover | Republican | 1 | 4 | 4 | 0 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 0 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| nowrap | Franklin Roosevelt | Democratic | 4 | 12.2 | 12.2 | 0 | 12.2 | 0 | 12.2 | 0 | 0 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| nowrap | Harry Truman | Democratic | 1 | 7.8 | 5.8 | 2 | 5.8 | 2 | 5.8 | 0 | 2 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| nowrap | Dwight Eisenhower | Republican | 2 | 8 | 2 | 6 | 2 | 6 | 2 | 0 | 6 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| nowrap | John Kennedy | Democratic | 1 | 2.8 | 2.8 | 0 | 2.8 | 0 | 2.8 | 0 | 0 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| nowrap | Lyndon Johnson | Democratic | 1 | 5.2 | 5.2 | 0 | 5.2 | 0 | 5.2 | 0 | 0 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| nowrap | Richard Nixon | Republican | 2 | 5.6 | 0 | 5.6 | 0 | 5.6 | 0 | 0 | 5.6 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| nowrap | Gerald Ford | Republican | 0 | 2.4 | 0 | 2.4 | 0 | 2.4 | 0 | 0 | 2.4 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| nowrap | Jimmy Carter | Democratic | 1 | 4 | 4 | 0 | 4 | 0 | 4 | 0 | 0 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| nowrap | Ronald Reagan | Republican | 2 | 8 | 6 | 2 | 0 | 8 | 0 | 6 | 2 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| nowrap | George H. W. Bush | Republican | 1 | 4 | 0 | 4 | 0 | 4 | 0 | 0 | 4 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| nowrap | Bill Clinton | Democratic | 2 | 8 | 2 | 6 | 2 | 6 | 2 | 0 | 6 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| nowrap | George W. Bush | Republican | 2 | 8 | 4.5 | 3.5 | 6 | 2 | 4.5 | 1.5 | 2 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| nowrap | Barack Obama | Democratic | 2 | 8 | 6 | 2 | 2 | 6 | 2 | 4 | 2 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| nowrap | Donald Trump | Republican | 1 | 4 | 4 | 0 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 0 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| nowrap | Joe Biden | Democratic | 1 | 4 | 4 | 0 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 0 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Donald Trump | Republican | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 |
Notes
References
References
- (3 September 2006). "Would Divided Government Be Better?". [[Cato Institute]].
- Moe, Terry. (1989). "The Politics of Bureaucratic Structure".
- Dorssom, Elizabeth I.. (March 21, 2021). "Does Legislative Institutionalization Impact Policy Adoption? New Evidence from the Colonial and Early State Legislatures 1757–1795". Social Science Quarterly.
- "Party In Power - Congress and Presidency - A Visual Guide To The Balance of Power In Congress, 1945-2008". Uspolitics.about.com.
- "Chart of Presidents of the United States". Filibustercartoons.com.
- "Composition of Congress by Party 1855–2013". Infoplease.com.
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