Dartmoor

Physical geography

Geology

Main article: Geology of Dartmoor National Park

Dartmoor includes the largest area of granite in Britain, with about 625 km2 at the surface, though most of it is under superficial peat deposits. The granite (or more specifically adamellite) was intruded at depth as a pluton into the surrounding sedimentary rocks during the Carboniferous period, probably about 309 million years ago. It is generally accepted that the present surface is not far below the original top of the pluton; evidence for this includes partly digested shale xenoliths, contamination of the granite and the existence of two patches of altered sedimentary rock on top of the granite. A considerable gravity anomaly is associated with the Dartmoor pluton as with other such plutons. Measurement of the anomaly has helped to determine the likely shape and extent of the rock mass at depth.

Tors

Dartmoor is known for its tors – hills topped with outcrops of bedrock, which in granite country such as this are usually rounded boulder-like formations. More than 160 of the hills of Dartmoor have the word tor in their name but quite a number do not. However, this does not appear to relate to whether or not there is an outcrop of rock on their summit. The tors are the focus of an annual event known as the Ten Tors Challenge, when around 2,400 people aged between 14 and 19 walk for distances of 35, 45 or 55 mi (56, 72 or 89 km) between ten tors on many different routes.

The highest points on Dartmoor are on the northern moor: High Willhays, 621 m, () and Yes Tor, 619 m, (). The highest points on the southern moor are Ryder's Hill, 515 m, (), Snowdon 495 m, (), and an unnamed point, 493 m at (), between Langcombe Hill and Shell Top. The best-known tor on Dartmoor is Haytor (called Hey Tor by William Crossing), 457 m, (). For a more complete list see List of Dartmoor tors and hills.

Rivers

The high ground of Dartmoor forms the catchment area for many of Devon's rivers. As well as shaping the landscape, these have traditionally provided a source of power for moor industries such as tin mining and quarrying.

The moor takes its name from the River Dart, which starts as the East Dart and West Dart and then becomes a single river at Dartmeet. It leaves the moor at Buckfastleigh, flowing through Totnes below where it opens up into a long ria, reaching the sea at Dartmouth. Other rivers flowing from Dartmoor include the Teign, the Taw, the Tavy, the Avon, and the Lyd.

Some of the rivers in Dartmoor have been dammed to create reservoirs for drinking water, including the River Avon and the South Teign River (Fernworthy Reservoir).

Bogs

Much more rain falls on Dartmoor than in the surrounding lowlands. As much of the national park is covered in thick layers of peat (decaying vegetation), the rain is usually absorbed quickly and distributed slowly, so the moor is rarely dry. In areas where water accumulates, dangerous bogs or mires can result. Some of these, topped with bright green moss, are known to locals as "feather beds" or "quakers", because they can shift (or 'quake') beneath a person's feet. Quakers result from sphagnum moss growing over the water that accumulates in the hollows in the granite.{{cite web |access-date=12 July 2009 |archive-date=1 November 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201101133944/https://www.legendarydartmoor.co.uk/bogs_moor.htm |url-status=dead

The vegetation of the bogs depends on the type and location. Blanket bog, which forms on the highest land where the rainfall exceeds 2000 mm a year, consists mainly of cotton-grass (eriophorum species), sedges (carex and rhynchospora), Bog Asphodel and Common Tormentil, with sphagnum thriving in the wettest patches. The valley bogs have lush growth of rushes, with sphagnum, cross-leaved heath, sundews and several other species.{{cite book | chapter-url-access=registration | chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/dartmoornewstudy0000gill/page/40

Some of the bogs on Dartmoor have achieved notoriety. Fox Tor Mires was supposedly the inspiration for Great Grimpen Mire in Conan Doyle's novel The Hound of the Baskervilles,{{cite web |access-date=7 July 2009 |archive-date=23 March 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090323024547/http://legendarydartmoor.co.uk/grim_mire.htm |url-status=dead

Astronomy

Dartmoor is popular with local astronomers because it is remote from many sources of light pollution. However, in recent years, LED street lights have caused more light pollution to be spread onto Dartmoor.

Climate

Along with the rest of South West England, Dartmoor has a temperate climate, which is generally milder than locations at similar height in the rest of England. At Princetown, near the centre of the moor at a height of 453 m, January and February are the coldest months with mean minimum temperatures around 1 C. July and August are the warmest months with mean daily maxima not reaching 18 C. Compared with Teignmouth, which is on the coast about 22 mi to the east, the average maximum and minimum temperatures are 3.0 C-change and 2.6 C-change lower respectively, and frost is at least five times as frequent. On the highest ground, in the north of the moor, the growing season is less than 175 days – this contrasts with some 300 days along most of the south coast of the county.

Rainfall tends to be associated with Atlantic depressions or with convection. In summer, convection caused by solar surface heating sometimes forms shower clouds and a large proportion of rainfall comes from showers and thunderstorms at this time of year. The wettest months are November and December and on the highest parts of the moor the average annual total rainfall is over 2000 mm. This compares with less than 800 mm in the lower land to the east around the Exe Estuary, which is in the rain shadow of the moor. Due to the influence of the Gulf Stream snowfall is not common, though due to its high altitude it is more vulnerable to snowfall than surrounding regions.

Between 1961 and 1990 Met Office data shows that there was an average of 20 days when snow fell on the moor, and over 40 days a year with hail, which is as high as anywhere else in the country. This results when cold polar maritime air that has travelled over a large expanse of warmer ocean is forced to rise over high country.

When average temperatures at Princetown between 1961 and 2000 are compared, the average annual temperature in the decade 1990–2000 was up by 0.2 C-change and the late winter temperature increased by 0.5 C-change.

Wildlife

Because of Dartmoor's height and granite geology, it experiences strong winds and has acidic soils. In consequence it has been subject to very little intensive farming, and all these factors combine to form the basis of the important ecosystems found here. The landscape is one of granite with peat bogs overlying it. While the moors topped with granite tors are the most iconic part of Dartmoor's landscape, only about half of Dartmoor is actually moorland. Equally important for wildlife are the blanket bogs, upland heaths and the oak woodlands, which are all of global importance. Dartmoor is a Special Area of Conservation (SAC) with four habitats (Northern Atlantic wet heaths with Erica tetralix; European dry heaths; Blanket bogs and Old sessile oak woods with Ilex and Blechnum in the British Isles) being listed as primary reasons for the selection of Dartmoor as a SAC. In addition the area has a population of the southern damselfly, which is also a primary reason for its selection along with populations of Atlantic salmon and otter being qualifying reasons.

Wistman's Wood is one of the old sessile oak woods that contribute to the listing of Dartmoor as a SAC and is possibly a surviving fragment from the earliest Neolithic woodland clearances. It is home to exceptional epiphytic mosses, liverworts and lichens. Nearly 50 species of moss and liverwort are found in the wood along with 120 types of lichen, including Smith's horsehair lichen, speckled sea-storm lichen and pendulous wing-moss. Over 60 species of lichens grow on the exposed surfaces of the granite tors, including granite-speck rim-lichen, purple rock lichen, brown cobblestone lichen and goldspot lichen and many rare lichen grow on rocks exposed by mining that are rich in heavy metals. On the upland heaths heather (ling) and bell heather are common along with western gorse. In dry grassy areas tormentil, heath bedstraw and heath milkwort are all common. Cross-leaved heath and purple moor grass grow in wetter spots and in the boggy areas many different species of sphagnum and other mosses can be found, along with liverworts, Hare's-tail Cotton-grass, round-leaved sundew and bog asphodel, and in the valley bottoms, many different sedges, bogbean and pale butterwort all grow.

A large variety of bird species can be found on Dartmoor including ones that have declined elsewhere in the UK, such as skylark and common snipe; some are even rare nationally, such as the ring ouzel and the cuckoo. There are internationally important populations of meadow pipit and stonechat. Woodland birds include a number of migrant species, like the pied flycatcher, the wood warbler or the common redstart. Mammals found here include otters, hazel dormice and nearly all of the UK's 16 bat species. Three rare species: the barbastelle, and the greater and lesser horseshoe bats are of particular importance. The upper reaches of the rivers are spawning grounds for Salmon and trout; Palmate newts, frogs and toads breed in the numerous small pools. Two shrimp species can be found on Dartmoor: fairy shrimp that can be found in temporary pools, and, in underground streams, very rare cave shrimp. The world's largest land slug, the Ash black, is also found. Reptiles include common lizards and adders. The farmland in the wet valleys around the edge of the moors is the most important habitat for insects, including: the marsh fritillary butterfly, southern damselfly, narrow-bordered bee hawkmoth and bog hoverfly. Areas of bracken are home to the high brown fritillary and pearl-bordered fritillary. Insects found in the heathlands include the emperor moth, green hairstreak and the bilberry bumblebee. The old oak woodlands have a distinctive group of insects including the blue ground beetle and Heckford's pygmy moth, a species found nowhere else in the world.

Restoration and climate change mitigation

The South West Peatland Project aims to restore around 300 hectares of Dartmoor's peatland through collaboration with Dartmoor National Park. Preserving these peatlands will help mitigate climate change through sequestering carbon from the atmosphere. More generally, Dartmoor aims to be carbon negative by 2045.

History

Pre-history

The majority of the prehistoric remains on Dartmoor date back to the late Neolithic and early Bronze Age. Indeed, Dartmoor contains the largest concentration of Bronze Age remains in the United Kingdom, which suggests that this was when a larger population moved onto the hills of Dartmoor. The large systems of Bronze Age fields, divided by reaves, cover an area of over 10000 ha of the lower moors.{{cite web |access-date=2 September 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091201085932/http://www.dartmoor-npa.gov.uk/index/lookingafter/laf-culturalheritage/laf-archaeology/laf-prehistoricdartmoor.htm |archive-date=1 December 2009}}

The climate at the time was warmer than today, and much of today's moorland was covered with trees. The prehistoric settlers began clearing the forest, and established the first farming communities. Fire was the main method of clearing land, creating pasture and swidden types of fire-fallow farmland. Areas less suited for farming tended to be burned for livestock grazing. Over the centuries these Neolithic practices greatly expanded the upland moors, and contributed to the acidification of the soil and the accumulation of peat and bogs.

After a few thousand years, the mild climate deteriorated. This left these areas uninhabited, and, consequently, relatively undisturbed to the present day. The highly acidic soil has ensured that no organic remains have survived, but the durability of the granite has meant that the remains of buildings, enclosures and monuments have survived well, as have flint tools. A number of remains were "restored" by enthusiastic Victorians and, in some cases, they have placed their own interpretation on how an area may have looked.

Standing stones

Numerous prehistoric menhirs (more usually referred to locally as standing stones or longstones), stone circles, kistvaens, cairns and stone rows are to be found on the moor. The most significant sites include:

• Upper Erme stone row is the longest on Dartmoor and in fact in the world at 3300 m
• Beardown Man, near Devil's Tor – isolated standing stone 3.5 m high, said to have another 1 m below ground.
• Challacombe, near the prehistoric settlement of Grimspound — triple stone row.
• Drizzlecombe, east of Sheepstor village – stone rows, standing stones, kistvaens and cairns.
• Grey Wethers, near Postbridge — double circle, aligned almost exactly north south.
• Laughter Tor, near Two Bridges — standing stone 2.4 m high and two double stone rows, one 164 m long.
• Merrivale, between Princetown and Tavistock — includes a double stone row 182 m long, 1.1 m wide, aligned almost exactly east–west, stone circles and a kistvaen.
• Scorhill (pronounced 'Scorill'), west of Chagford — circle, 26.8 m in circumference, and stone rows.
• Shovel Down, north of Fernworthy reservoir — double stone row approximately 120 m long.
• Yellowmead Down, a quadruple concentric stone circle and stone rows.

Hut circles and kistvaens

There are also an estimated 5,000 hut circles still surviving although many have been raided over the centuries by the builders of the traditional dry stone walls. These are the remnants of Bronze Age houses. The smallest are around 1.8 m in diameter, and the largest may be up to five times this size.

Some have L-shaped porches to protect against wind and rain; some particularly good examples are to be found at Grimspound. It is believed that they would have had a conical roof, supported by timbers and covered in turf or thatch.

There are also numerous kistvaens, Neolithic stone box-like tombs.

The historical period

The climate became wetter and cooler over the course of a thousand years from around 1000 BC, resulting in much of high Dartmoor being largely abandoned by its early inhabitants. The earliest surviving farms, still in operation today, are known as the Ancient Tenements. Most of these date back to the 14th century, and some even earlier.

It was not until the early Mediaeval period that the weather again became warmer, and settlers moved back onto the moors. Like their ancient predecessors, they used the natural granite to build their homes, preferring a style known as the longhouse; some of theses are still inhabited today, although they have been clearly adapted over the centuries. Many are now used as farm buildings, while others have been abandoned and fallen into ruin.

Some way into the moor stands the town of Princetown, the site of Dartmoor Prison, which was originally built by Isbell Rowe & Company, Plymouth, for prisoners of war from the Napoleonic Wars and the War of 1812. The prison has a reputation for being escape-proof, due to both the buildings themselves and its physical location.

The Dartmoor landscape is scattered with the marks left by the many generations who have lived and worked there over the centuries – such as the remains of the Dartmoor tin-mining industry, and farmhouses long since abandoned. See Industrial archaeology of Dartmoor.

Ownership and access

Over half of Dartmoor National Park (57.3%) is private land; the Forest of Dartmoor being the major part of this, owned by the Duke of Cornwall. The Ministry of Defence owns 14% (see below), 3.8% is owned by water companies (see Dartmoor reservoirs), 3.7% by the National Trust, 1.8% by the Forestry Commission and 1.4% by Dartmoor's national park authority. About 37% of Dartmoor is common land.

Dartmoor differs from some other National Parks in England and Wales, in that since the Dartmoor Commons Act 1985 much of it has been designated as access land, which, although it remains privately owned, has no restrictions on where walkers can roam. In addition to this access land, there are about 730 km of public rights of way on Dartmoor, and many kilometres of permitted footpaths and bridleways where the owners allow access.

Because of the 1985 Act, Dartmoor was largely unaffected by the Countryside and Rights of Way Act 2000, which established similar rights in other rural parts of the country, until 2006, when the 2000 Act opened up much of the remaining restricted land to walkers.

Camping

In January 2023, in a High Court judgment in a case brought by landowner Alexander Darwall, the right of the public to wild camp on Dartmoor was lost. Julian Flaux, the Chancellor of the High Court, ruled: "...section 10(1) of the 1985 Act does not confer on the public any right to pitch tents or otherwise make camp overnight on Dartmoor Commons. Any such camping requires the consent of the landowner." A protest against the new restrictions, led by local storyteller Martin Shaw, was held in January 2023. The High Court's decision was overturned by the Court of Appeal on 31 July 2023 allowing wild camping on Dartmoor. The Darwalls were granted leave to appeal to the Supreme Court, who upheld the Court of Appeal's decision to allow wild camping on Dartmoor on 21 May 2025.

Use by the Ministry of Defence

There is a history of military usage of Dartmoor dating back to the Napoleonic Wars. Today, a large British Army training camp remains at Okehampton — also the site of an airbase during the Second World War.

The Ministry of Defence (MoD) uses three areas of the northern moor for manoeuvres and live-firing exercises, totalling 108.71 km2, or just over 11% of the National Park. Red and white posts mark the boundaries of these military areas (shown on Ordnance Survey 1:25,000 scale maps). Flagpoles on many tors in and around the ranges fly red flags when firing is taking place. At other times, members of the public are allowed access. Blank rounds may also be used, but the MoD does not notify the public of this in advance.

Some "challenge" and charitable events take place with assistance of the military on Dartmoor, including the long established Ten Tors event and the more recent Dartmoor Beast.

The disused Rippon Tor Rifle Range was built to train soldiers during the Second World War, and remained in use until its closure in 1977.

Preservation

Throughout human history, the landscape has been exploited for industrial purposes. In recent years, controversy has surrounded the work of industrial conglomerates Imerys and Sibelco (formerly Watts Blake Bearne), who have used parts of the moor for china clay mining. Licences were granted by the British Government but were recently renounced after sustained public pressure from bodies such as the Dartmoor Preservation Association.

The British government has made promises to protect the integrity of the moor; however, the cost of compensating companies for these licences, which may not have been granted in today's political climate, could prove prohibitive.

The military use of the moor has been another source of controversy, as when training was extended in January 2003. The national park authority received 1,700 objections before making the decision. Objectors said that Dartmoor should be an area for recreation, and that the training disturbs the peace.

Those who objected included the Open Spaces Society and the Dartmoor Preservation Association. During her lifetime, Sylvia Sayer was another outspoken critic of the damage that she perceived that the army was doing to the moor.

Towns and villages

The designated Dartmoor National Park area has a resident population of about 33,000, which swells considerably during holiday periods with incoming tourists. The largest settlements within the National Park are Ashburton (the largest, with a population of about 3,500), Buckfastleigh, Moretonhampstead, Princetown, Yelverton, Horrabridge, South Brent, Christow, and Chagford.

For a full list, expand the Settlements of Dartmoor navigational box at the bottom of this page.

Landmarks

• Avon Dam Reservoir – reservoir popular for walks and trout fishing
• Bowerman's Nose – a tor said to be shaped like a nose
• Brentor Church – remote church 344 m high on crag at western edge of moor
• Buckfast Abbey – abbey near Buckfastleigh
• Burrator Reservoir – late Victorian reservoir
• Canonteign Falls – second highest waterfall in England
• Castle Drogo – Edwardian faux castle built by Edwin Lutyens on a crag above Teign Gorge, Drewsteignton
• Childe's Tomb – ancient burial site
• Cosdon Hill – prominent hill, northern extremity of moor, site of beacon fire for invasion warning
• Cranmere Pool – original letterbox site and location of the legend of Cranmere Binjie
• Crazywell Pool – artificial lake
• Dartmeet – meeting point of East and West Dart rivers
• Dartmoor Prison – a prison in the middle of Dartmoor at the village of Princetown
• Devonport Leat – human-made water channel
• Duck's Pool – location of a memorial to local writer William Crossing
• Fernworthy Dam & Reservoir – granite-faced concrete dam and lake in Fernworthy Forest, near Chagford
• Fingle Bridge – a 17th-century crossing of the River Teign near Chagford
• Great Links Tor – dominant tor on north west scarp of moor
• Grey Wethers – pair of ancient stone circles
• Grimspound – Bronze Age settlement
• Haytor Granite Tramway – early tramway with stone rails; ran from quarries at Haytor to Stover Canal
• Haytor Rock – prominent tor and viewpoint between Bovey Tracey and Widecombe
• Hay Tor – less prominent outcrop behind Haytor Rock when viewed from the south. Popular spot for rock climbing due to its large cliff face and relative ease of access.
• High Willhays – highest point on Dartmoor
• Hound Tor – rugged tor with remains of Iron Age village
• Jay's Grave – burial site
• Lydford Gorge – deep and narrow gorge with waterfalls
• Meldon Viaduct and reservoir – 201 m wide and 45 m high concrete dam and Victorian iron bridge which itself is 165 m wide and 46 m high
• North Hessary Tor transmitting station – a TV mast near Princetown which can be seen for many miles.
• Rippon Tor Rifle Range – disused rifle range
• Redlake Tramway – disused railway
• Spitchwick – a swimming spot where the River Webburn joins the River Dart
• Tavistock Canal – 19th-century canal
• Two Bridges – 18th-century coaching inn
• Warren House Inn – highest inn in south west England, rumoured to have a fire which has not gone out in hundreds of years.
• Widecombe in the moor, village in a valley in southern Dartmoor with a church rumoured to have been struck by lightning in medieval times.
• Wistman's Wood – copse of stunted oaks in the valley of the West Dart near Two Bridges
• Yes Tor – tor next to High Willhays, forming the second highest hill in Dartmoor.

In myths and popular culture

Dartmoor is known for its many ancient myths and legends. It is reputedly the haunt of pixies, a headless horseman, a mysterious pack of "spectral hounds", and a large black dog, among others. During the Great Thunderstorm of 1638, the moorland village of Widecombe-in-the-Moor was said to have been visited by the Devil.

In addition to the many general legends and myths, some specific Dartmoor-based landmarks have ghost stories associated with them. For example, the ancient burial site of Childe's Tomb, the rock pile called Bowerman's Nose, the stone crosses that mark former mediaeval routes across the moor and the allegedly haunted Jay's Grave. In recent decades, other stories have emerged such as the "hairy hands", that are said to attack motorists on the B3212 near Two Bridges;{{cite web |access-date=7 August 2010 |archive-date=23 May 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100523111221/http://www.legendarydartmoor.co.uk/hairy_hands.htm |url-status=dead |access-date=7 August 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100823061015/http://www.legendarydartmoor.co.uk/beast_dart.htm |archive-date=23 August 2010}}

Bibliography

• Crossing, William Crossing's Guide to Dartmoor, the 1912 edition reprinted with new introd. by Brian Le Messurier. Dawlish: David & Charles, 1965.
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• {{cite book | editor1-last = Spooner | editor1-first = G. M. | editor2-last = Russell | editor2-first = F. S. | editor2-link = F. S. Russell

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