Corruption in Pakistan

Brief history

6 May 1945 The Dominion of Pakistan was created as a result of the Pakistan Movement in 1947. Upon gaining independence, Pakistan inherited a strong bureaucracy and army from the British Raj. There has since been no major change in this bureaucratic set-up since it was first implemented by the British, although reforms were proposed by the Musharraf regime in 2007. This has led many to speculate that "corruption has seeped into the higher echelons of bureaucracy" where "corruption cases are [mostly] reported against irregular and ex-cadre appointments".{{cite news |access-date=2013-12-24}} It was by the late 1960s that the bureaucracy started being portrayed as an "instrument of oppression". In multiple reports published by the World Bank, the Pakistani bureaucracy was seen as being rife with corruption, inefficient and bloated in size with an absence of accountability and resistance to change.

Bureaucracy and secession of East Pakistan: 1954–1971

The bureaucratic influence was strong in the western provinces of Pakistan while the eastern province retained a majority of the population. On 22 November 1954, bureaucratic administrators moved a resolution to merge the four western provinces into a single unit called West Pakistan. This led to public outcry in East Pakistan who felt that they were being misrepresented and systematically marginalised by the land-owning Punjabi Muslim elites who enjoyed higher bureaucratic positions at the time. This led to the secession of East Pakistan into the separate nation-state of Bangladesh and lay witness to the corrupt malpractices of the Punjabi elite in West Pakistan. Punjabis argued that East Pakistan's majority was a consequence of the high percentage of Bengali Hindus in the province who were not involved in the state's decision-making processes. Thus, the Punjabi landowners remained largely unrepentant of their desires to "[secure] their own hegemony" leading to the loss of the eastern province in 1971.{{cite news |access-date=2013-12-24}}

Nationalisation politicises economic planning: 1973–1977

After Zulfikar Ali Bhutto came into power in 1973, he introduced a planned economic system to revitalise the stagnant economy. This led to the introduction of the nationalisation programme bringing entire private industrial corporations under government ownership. In 1974, Bhutto cancelled the fourth five-year plans bypassing the recommendations of the Planning Commission, focusing entirely on broadening government control over private business enterprises. In doing so, Bhutto's government began the politicisation of economic planning.

Political interference opened doors for corrupt political practices to seep into the nation's economic planning processes. The nationalisation programme badly affected the reputation of the Pakistan Peoples Party. Accumulated losses of up to Rs 254 million were reported with several instances of over-staffing and inefficient productivity in heavy mechanical industries. By 1976, the state had been hijacked by groups and individuals trying to accumulate wealth by redistributing resources from public enterprises to private individuals. Public enterprises "became a device to extend political patronage to those that the regime favoured, to pay political debts, or to accumulate power".

Denationalisation and political favouritism: 1978–1988

Bhutto's nationalisation programme lost its appeal towards the end of his government's term and the demand for denationalisation gained more currency. The successive government of military chief and president Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq released a whitepaper that led to the creation of a commission under Pakistan Industrial Credit and Investment Corporation (PICIC) to reverse earlier nationalisation efforts.{{cite book |access-date=2013-12-25|isbn=978-0300183665 |access-date=2013-12-25}}{{cite news |access-date=2013-12-26}}

Unprecedented political corruption: 2008–2013

In 2012, Transparency International (TI) calculated that Pakistan had lost more than Rs 8.5 trillion (US$ 94 billion) in corruption, tax evasion and bad governance in the PPP-led coalition government from 2008 to 2013.

Present

From 2013 to 2017, while Nawaz Sharif was in power, Transparency International indicated a significant drop in corruption as Pakistan improved from a score of 28 to 32 in the TI Corruption Perceptions Index, even though serious allegations of corruption{{cite web |access-date = 30 April 2023 were levelled against him during that time. In the Index, 180 countries across the world are scored on a scale of 0 ("highly corrupt") to 100 ("very clean") according to how honest their public sectors are perceived to be; a high score indicates a perception of an honest public sector.

Adil Gillani, an advisor for TI Pakistan, observed in 2012 that if Pakistan checked the menace of corruption and ensured good governance, it would not require a single penny from the outside world. The 2008–2013 PPP-led coalition government was criticised as being the most corrupt in the country's history.{{cite news |access-date = 2013-12-24 |url-status = dead |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130305004549/http://www.geo.tv/GeoDetail.aspx?ID=34007 |archive-date = 5 March 2013 |access-date=2013-12-24}} and Pakistan Railways.{{cite news |access-date=2013-12-24}}

On 29 March 2012, a civilian resident of Johar Town Lahore, Tariq Ahmed, filed a court petition in the Lahore High Court, seeking to hear the case of disqualification of Prime Minister Yousaf Raza Gillani.{{cite news |access-date=2012-12-24}} The plea was filed in the High Court in which the petitioner took the stance that "Fauzia Gillani— spouse of Prime Minister Gillani received loans of millions of rupees from the Agriculture Development Bank Ltd (ADB) and the National Bank of Pakistan for the two mega-corporations owned by the Gillani family of which Fauzia Gillani served both megacorporations as executive director. None of the loans of millions of rupees were paid back to the banks. When the disqualification petition was put to rest by the ruling of the Speaker of the National Assembly Dr Fehmida Mirza citing that the petition did not hold ground, Gillani was convicted on the charges of Contempt of Court. Gillani became Pakistan's first Prime Minister to be convicted while holding office{{cite news |access-date=2013-12-24}} and was later sentenced and disqualified. Gillani is prudently criticised for a prolonged era of stagflation, in which fundamental economic problems were ignored, the government was mismanaged and corruption was endemic.

In the 2024 Corruption Perceptions Index, Pakistan received a score of 27, where the best-scoring country in the region received a score of 84, the average score was 44 and the worst-scoring country received 16. Worldwide, the best score was 90, the average score was 43, and the worst score was 8.

Anti-corruption efforts

Prevention of Corruption Acts: 1947, 1950 and 1958

The Prevention of Corruption Act, 1947 implemented in the Dominion of Pakistan was enacted to make effective provisions for the prevention of bribery and corruption of public servants, particularly in the bureaucratic administration. The autonomous Princely State of Bahawalpur adopted its own version of the act, namely the Bahawalpur Prevention of Corruption Act, of 1950.

In 1955, an accord was signed between Nawab Sadeq Mohammad Khan V and Lt Gen Ghulam Muhammad Malik which made the state of Bahawalpur a part of the province of West Pakistan. This geopolitical change meant that the original act needed amendments to include Bahawalpur and other regions which were originally left out of the act. Subsequently, in October 1958, an ordinance was passed to extend the act to the whole of the province of West Pakistan – this is known as the Prevention of Corruption Act (West Pakistan Extension) Ordinance, 1958. This ordinance extended the scope of the original to the districts of Karat, Kharan, Makran and Lasbela and also repealed the Bahawalpur Prevention of Corruption Act, of 1950.

National Accountability Bureau Ordinance, 1999

On 16 November 1999, Ordinance XIX was passed which later came to be known as the National Accountability Bureau Ordinance. It called for the establishment of the National Accountability Bureau (NAB) as an autonomous federal institution-building efforts to combat cases of corruption, financial crimes and economic terrorism in Pakistan. According to the ordinance, NAB was granted authority to launch investigations, conduct inquiries, and issue arrest warrants against individuals suspected of financial mismanagement, terrorism, corruption in private, state, defence and corporate sectors), and direct such cases to accountability courts. Individuals convicted under the National Accountability Bureau Ordinance are prohibited from holding political office for ten years.{{cite journal |access-date=24 December 2013}}

Provincial legislation against corruption

The provincial governments of Pakistan are responsible for legislation in their respective provinces and since 2013, there have been several legislative efforts against corruption, primarily in the provinces of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and Punjab. Following is a list of recent anti-corruption legislation:

Khyber Pakhtunkhwa anti-corruption legislation

The Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Right to Information Bill was passed in the provincial assembly on 31 October 2013. It was enacted throughout the province by the Governor of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa on 4 November 2013 as the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Right to Information Act, 2013.{{cite web |access-date=14 June 2025}} The legislation makes way for provisions that add transparency to the various functions and departments of the government. It gives the citizens of the province the right to access any information or record held by a public body, except for the information that is sensitive to the security of the state.

Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Ehtesab Commission

Main article: Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Ehtesab Commission

Role of mainstream and social media

Mainstream media

Before 2002, the electronic media was entirely dominated by state-owned institutions like Pakistan Television Corporation and Pakistan Broadcasting Corporation. This monopoly was thwarted, when the Musharraf regime regulated the electronic media allowing for private television channels to be operated independently. Since the liberalisation of electronic media in 2002, it has served as a major force in exposing corruption-related cases and scams.

Following are a few of the major corruption scams and scandals reported and exposed in the mainstream Pakistani media:

• Rental Power Projects (RPP) scam: In 2006, the media reported on a case involving several instances of bribery in the Rental Power Projects (RPP) where top-level ministers were involved. Former Prime Minister Raja Pervez Ashraf was also allegedly involved in these cases of corruption but was later cleared by the NAB. His involvement in this case earned him the nickname "Raja Rental".{{cite news |access-date=2013-12-25}}
• PMDC fake registrations: In 2010, Dr Ahmad Nadeem Akbar, Registrar of the Pakistan Medical and Dental Council cancelled fake registrations done by some PM&DC officials and dismissed them from service as they were found to issuing fake registration of medical professionals, allowing for inexperienced personnel to take up important positions in medicine and play with lives of public. The Islamabad High Court in July 2014 and earlier the Supreme Court had upheld his actions and ordered high power inquiries by NAB in this regard against culprits nominated by Dr Ahmad Nadeem Akbar Once this negligence was reported in the media, the Anti-corruption and Crime Wing of the Federal Investigation Agency took action and identified fake registrations for 40 doctors and 19 medical colleges. The case of registration of 19 medical colleges in one day was investigated by Honourable Justice Shabbar Raza Rizvi and the report points towards corruption by the PM&DC Executive Committee member Dr Asim Hussain and Prof Massod Hameed Khan and the employees of the Federal Ministry. As of 2013, FIA had identified about 150 probable instances of fake registrations.{{cite news |access-date=2013-12-24}}
• Mismanagement of state-owned institutions: Pakistan's flagship airline Pakistan International Airlines (PIA) was reported to have been mismanagement by the executive authorities giving rise to a corrupt culture of bribery. Corruption in PIA led to losses of around US$ 500 million. Similarly, massive financial losses were reported for Pakistan Railways caused by embezzlement.
• Hajj corruption case: Media reported on an ongoing corruption scandal involving federal ministers extorting illegal payouts from travel agents involved in fleecing Hajj pilgrims to Saudi Arabia.{{cite news |access-date=2013-12-25 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131225173129/http://x.dawn.com/2010/12/09/supreme-court-begins-hajj-corruption-hearings/ |archive-date=25 December 2013 |url-status=dead |access-date=2013-12-25 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121030185315/http://dawn.com/tag/hajj-corruption-case/ |archive-date=2012-10-30
• OGRA scam: One Adnan Khwaja brother-in-law of PPP Secretary-General Punjab was appointed as Chairman who was instrumental in the scam. The OGRA scam case is sub-judice and the ex-chairman is being prosecuted but at snail's pace.
• NATO containers case: Media reported on 40 NATO containers that went missing on their way to the International Security Assistance Force (ISAF) in Afghanistan. It was later identified that the missing containers carried cargo that was considered contraband in Pakistan, including liquor to be sold in Pakistan.{{cite news |access-date=2013-12-24}}
• Pakistan Steel Mills scam: The mainstream media reported a major scam in the Pakistan Steel Mills involving Rs 26.5 billion. Once the scam was reported, the FIA initially took action but their progress turned sluggish due to which the Supreme Court issued a contempt of court notice to the Interior Minister Rehman Malik for hindering and interfering with the investigation.{{cite news |access-date=2013-12-24}}
• NICL corruption case: The National Insurance Company Limited scandal was first reported in the media in 2012 involving the purchase of 10 acres of land in Karachi by the company at "an exorbitant price" and the transfer of millions of rupees from the account of Zafar Salim, a cousin of the land seller Khwaja Akbar Butt into the joint accounts of Makhdoom Muhammad Ameen Faheem, his wife and his son.{{cite news |access-date=2013-12-24}}{{cite news |access-date = 2013-12-24 |url-status = dead |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20131225173622/http://x.dawn.com/tag/nicl-corruption-case/ |archive-date = 2013-12-25
• Ephedrine quota case: The Ephedrine quote case was a scandal involving Prime Minister Yousaf Raza Gillani's son, Ali Musa Gillani, who pressured officials of the Ministry of Health into allocating a quota (worth Rs 70 billion) of controlled chemical ephedrine to two different Multan-based pharmaceutical companies.{{cite web |access-date=2013-12-25 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131226032336/http://www.awaztoday.com/issues/Ephedrine-Quota-Case.aspx?pageid=6&typeid=0&pageno=1 |archive-date=2013-12-26
• The mediagate scandal: It was reported that Chief Justice of Pakistan Iftikhar Muhammad Chaudhry's son had allegedly taken money from Malik Riaz Hussain, a real-estate tycoon, to persuade courts to give decisions in favour of the latter. Renowned columnist and anchorperson Javed Chaudhry observed that the case against Malik Riaz proved that the media can hold itself and the judiciary accountable. He further added that this case along with the case for missing persons effectively establishes the credibility and impartiality of the media's fight against corruption.{{cite news |access-date=2013-12-24}}
• 2024 National Highway Authority (NHA) Scandal: In January 2024, Pakistan's National Accountability Bureau (NAB) launched an investigation into alleged embezzlement of ₨25 billion (≈$90 million) in the National Highway Authority (NHA). The funds, allocated for the Sukkur-Hyderabad Motorway (M-6), were reportedly diverted through fake contracts and inflated billing. Key accused include:
  • Former NHA Chairman Capt. (retd.) Muhammad Khurram Agha (arrested March 2024)
  • 5 contractors linked to shell companies (Dawn, 2024) The scandal triggered protests by the Pakistan Engineers Forum, demanding reforms in public infrastructure tendering (The News International, 2024).

Social media

In the wake of the 2013 elections, massive electoral rigging was alleged through first-hand accounts of several members of the public via social networking websites. Specialised websites were set up to publish and archive material exposing corrupt malpractices throughout the many polling stations serving several constituencies. Several leaked videos of persons supposed to be caught in the act of rigging the polls went viral and caught the eye of the mainstream media becoming topics of discussion in days to follow.{{cite web |access-date=2013-12-25}} However, a judicial probe found these allegations to be unsubstantiated. Even before the elections, social media served as an effective tool to hold the nation's to-be-leaders "accountable" for various issues like corruption and education.{{cite news |access-date=2013-12-25}}

Citizen journalism is emerging as a growing phenomenon and social media is being touted in Pakistan as an important tool that can be used to strengthen democracy.{{cite magazine |access-date=2013-12-25}} Adding to the mix, several prominent politicians have moved to the likes of Twitter to gather support and get prospective voters on board and analysts think that this can lead to a better and direct accountability of political leaders. Social media has also proved effective in identifying corruption in mainstream media,{{cite web |access-date=2013-12-25}} particularly in the case of the mediagate scandal.

Corruption by sector

Bureaucratic corruption

Bribery: common in obtaining basic services like issuing passports, CNICs, land registrations, driving licenses, etc.

Nepotism and patronage: jobs, promotions, and contracts often go to those with political connections rather than merit.

Misuse of authority: officials may exploit their positions for personal gain, favoring certain individuals or businesses.

Embezzlement and kickbacks: misappropriation of public funds, especially in the public works, health, and education sectors.

Pakistan Armed Forces

The Army runs the Fauji Foundation which sold Khoski Sugar Mill in 2004 for PKR 300 million despite receiving the highest bid of PKR 387 million. In 2005, a corruption case was filed in the National Accountability Bureau (NAB) against then managing director Syed Muhammad Amjad who was involved in the corruption.

In 2010, a corruption scandal was unearthed that involved two Pakistan Army generals, (Maj Gen Khalid Zaheer Akhtar and Lt Gen Muhammad Afzal), and caused a loss of to the National Logistics Corporation through speculative investments between 2004 and 2008. In 2015, both of them were convicted by the military court of Pakistan.

Air Force corruption

The Pakistan Air Force runs the Shaheen Foundation which founded Shaheen Insurance in 1995 as a joint venture with a South African insurance company, Hollard Group. Later, Hollard's management was dissatisfied with the investment, citing corruption as a major impediment to their investment's success.

Navy handling of corruption allegations

Main article: Karachi affair

Pakistan Navy's officials were found guility of corruption in Karachi affair. Commissions of 6.25% of the contract, approximately €50 million, were paid out to the lobbying firms in Pakistan and France. Some €50m were allegedly paid as "sweeteners" to various senior Pakistan Navy admirals and officers as well as the political leaders. In 1996–97, the Naval Intelligence led by its Director-General, Rear-Admiral Tanvir Ahmed, secretly launched its investigations into this matter and began collecting physical evidence that eventually led to the exposure of Chief of Naval Staff, Admiral Mansurul Haq, in receiving massive monetary commissions in 1997. Massive media coverage and the news of the dismissals of one and two-star admirals tarnished the image of the Navy, with Admiral Fasih Bokhari, who took over the command of the Navy from Admiral Mansurul Haq, forced to attempt damage control of the situation.

Judiciary

In 2002, in a report titled "Nature and Extent of Corruption in the Public Sector", Transparency International (TI) Pakistan reported that the highest amounts of bribery were spent on people affiliated with the judiciary. Later in 2010, TI Pakistan presented a breakdown of the various actors in the judicial system involved in corruption. A majority of the participants reported that they, or someone in their household, have been subjected to an act of corruption while interacting with someone from the judiciary. When asked of the actors involved, 33.62% people said court employees, 23.73% said public prosecutors, 14.12% said witnesses, 12.43% said judges, 8.19% said opponent lawyer, 4.52% said magistrates and 3.39% mentioned others.

In a 2011 survey, TI Pakistan identified the judiciary as the most corrupt institution in Pakistan alongside the police.{{cite web |access-date=2013-12-25}} Nevertheless, with the proceedings of some high-impact corruption cases against government officials, including the Prime Minister, the Supreme Court demonstrated its positive role in tackling corruption. Where the apex court was being hailed for its anti-corruption efforts in 2013,{{cite news |access-date=2013-12-25}} Mehmoodul Hassan, a member of the Sindh Bar Council, alleged that nepotism and corruption were still "rampant" in the lower judiciary, particularly high courts and the lower courts, where people were unlawfully promoted within the judiciary.{{cite news |access-date=2013-12-25}}

In 2023, the number of unresolved cases before the Supreme Court increased by 7 percent.

A 2025 IMF report identifies the judiciary as one of the critical bottlenecks behind corruption. As of 2025, Pakistan’s legal system was overwhelmed by more than two million pending cases.

Legislative

There have been high-profile corruption cases against high-ranking elected officials in Pakistan. In April 2018 former Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif was given a lifetime ban on political activities. Sharif was sentenced to 10 years in prison in July of 2018 for his involvement in real estate dealings in Panama. In November of 2023 a Pakistani court overturned Sharif's conviction, and he considered rejoining the political realm. In January 2025 former Prime Minister Imran Khan was sentenced to 14 years in prison and fined for leaking state secrets.

Education

In the 2010, TI Pakistan reported that about 23.7% of those surveyed received admission in educational institutions through non-normal and alternate procedures. One of the biggest problems identified in the country is the presence of a non-uniform educational system.{{cite news |access-date=2013-12-26}} The private sector actively encourages western educational models such as the General Certificate of Secondary Education using this to justify unaffordable fees they charge ordinary citizens.{{cite news |access-date=2013-12-25}} Finding gain in such enterprises, the elite class amongst politicians, technocrats, bureaucrats and businessmen usually capitalise in this venture. These attitudes can also explain the deteriorating standards in the public sector educational institutes. On the other hand, state-owned public schools face several challenges including poor management and governance, and incompetence of consecutive governments in the education sector. Further factors for failing standards in state-run institutions include lack of funding, non-utilisation by elite classes, appointments of under-qualified faculty.

For a brief time during the regime of Pervez Musharraf, Pakistan received unprecedented investments in its higher-education sector – this funding faltered with the arrival of Zardari's government after 2008. In 2011, Dr Syed Abdul Aziz, director of Hamdard Institute of Education and Social Sciences declared education as one of the most corrupt sectors in Pakistan.{{cite news |access-date=2013-12-26}} According to 2013 findings by Transparency International, factor that contribute to this corrupt culture in the sector include embezzlement of development funds allocated by the government, thousands of ghost schools that appear only on paper, bribes taken to sell confidential material to candidates, poor or under-utilisation of funds and an inertia to change on the behalf of the education ministry.{{cite news |access-date=2013-12-26}}

Health care

In 2010, 42% of surveyed individuals reported gaining access to hospital services by a method other than standard admission, and 48% reported either having to pay additional costs for essential services or being forced to utilize the services of a designated affiliate. Of the respondents who were asked to identify which parties orchestrated the corrupt acts, 61% reported hospital staff, 25% reported doctors, and 13% reported nurses.

Police and law enforcement

Corruption is found to be commonplace in the lower levels of police. Police was observed as the most corrupt sector in a 2013 survey by Transparency International (TI).{{cite news |access-date=2013-12-27}} This situation has persisted since the graft watchdog's July 2010 survey, in which it was noted that the major cause for corruption in this sector was due to a lack of accountability and merit, and low salaries. Payment of bribes in order to escape and avoid charges was also commonplace; 31% of 4,224 respondents reported paying bribes to the police. Citizen journalists upload instances of police officials taking bribes on social networking and video sharing websites like YouTube.{{cite web |access-date=2013-12-25}}{{cite web |access-date=2013-12-25}}

Ordinary citizens face challenges in reporting instances of corruption they encounter with the police. In 2005, Prime Minister Shaukat Aziz ordered an investigation into claims by a 23-year-old woman who alleged that, in retaliation for attempting to reveal police corruption, police falsely detained her for fifteen days and raped her.{{cite news |access-date=2010-11-07}}

Public utilities

As of 2002, 96% of surveyed individuals reported corruption issues with electrical utility officials during the past year. The most common types of corruption were billing related. Some consumers admitted to illegally reducing their utility bills, while others reported being harassed with inflated bills intended to solicit bribes. Out of the pool of corruption-affirmative respondents, 71% reported that money was "demanded directly by the actor".

Sports corruption

In August 2010, reporters from News of the World orchestrated a sting operation which was able to identify three Pakistani cricket players – Salman Butt, Mohammad Asif and Mohammad Amir – and a bookmaker Mazhar Majeed of being complicit in a row over spot-fixing in the fourth England-Pakistan test match at Lord's.{{cite news |access-date=10 December 2010}} The cricketers each received 30 months, one year and six months jail term respectively while the bookmaker received two years and eight months jail term in a verdict issued by the Southwark Crown Court on November 3, 2011.{{cite news |access-date=10 December 2011}}{{cite news |access-date=10 December 2011 |access-date=10 December 2011 |access-date=10 December 2011 |access-date=10 December 2011

Taxation

According to the 2002 study, 99% of 256 respondents reported facing corruption of taxation. Furthermore, 32% of respondents reported paying bribes to have their tax assessment lowered, and nearly 14% reported receiving fictitious tax assessments until a bribe was paid.

Electoral

• 1960 Pakistani Referendum

• 1977 Pakistani general election

The 1977 elections are widely regarded as rigged. Zulfikar Ali Bhutto, maintaining some aspects of the prior military regime, called for elections for the national and provincial assemblies on 7 and 10 March 1977, respectively. These elections were marred by allegations of manipulation, including the dissolution and replacement of the governments in Balochistan and North-West Frontier Province with PPP-led administrations.

• 1985 Pakistani general election

• 1990 Pakistani general election

The manipulation of the 1990 election can be traced back to the pre-1988 electoral landscape, with the formation of the Islami Jamhoori Ittehad(IJI), a coalition of nine parties. This alliance, orchestrated by former ISI Chief Hamid Gul, aimed to counter Prime Minister Benazir Bhutto's political influence. Despite being rapidly assembled, the IJI failed to secure a victory in the 1988 elections.

By 1990, the IJI had strengthened its position, with its chairman, Ghulam Mustafa Jatoi, serving as the caretaker prime minister of Pakistan for the elections, aiming to influence the outcome.

In 2012, the Supreme Court of Pakistan recognised substantial evidence of rigging in the 1990 elections, implicating Ghulam Ishaq Khan, Mirza Aslam Beg, and Asad Durrani. The court also highlighted the illegal distribution of Rs 140 million from the state treasury to opposition politicians by Younas Habib, aimed at preventing a PPP victory.

In 2012, the Supreme Court of Pakistan recognized substantial evidence of rigging in the 1990 elections.

• 1997 Pakistani general elections

• 2002 Pakistani general election

In 2002, Pakistan's political dynamics shifted when Pervez Musharraf, holding dual roles as Army Chief and President, conducted elections.The event was notable for the direct involvement of military influence in the electoral process, a contrast to previous instances of behind-the-scenes manipulation.

The elections resulted in a victory for the PML-Q, a party established shortly before the elections, consisting of politicians primarily drawn from traditional political parties such as the PPP and PML-N. To further control the political landscape, the Musharraf-led government introduced the Political Parties Order, 2002, imposing criteria that effectively disqualified the leadership of the PPP and the PML-N from participating in the elections. The administrative machinery, from the police to vote counters, was reportedly aligned with state interests, suggesting widespread rigging.

• 2002 Pakistani referendum

• 2018 Pakistani general election

• 2024 Pakistani general election

Notes

Citations

References

• {{cite book |editor1-first=Arvind K |editor1-last=Jain |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iPyYqBpuV6IC&pg=PA142 |access-date=2013-12-24
• {{cite report |access-date=2013-12-24
• {{cite journal
• {{cite book
• {{cite conference |editor-first=May |editor-last=Jayyusi |book-title=Liberation, Democratization, and Transitions to Statehood in the Third World |access-date=2013-12-24
• {{cite book
• {{cite journal |doi-access=free
• {{cite book
• {{cite book
• {{cite conference |access-date=2013-12-27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131227210225/http://www.unafei.or.jp/english/pdf/RS_No56/No56_42PA_Raza.pdf |archive-date=2013-12-27 |url-status=dead
• {{cite report
• {{cite journal |access-date=2013-12-24 |archive-date=2014-03-27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140327153207/http://www.saeedshafqat.com/articles/pakistan.pdf |url-status=dead
• {{cite web |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120511052011/http://archive.transparency.org/policy_research/surveys_indices/cpi/2009/cpi_2009_table |archive-date=2012-05-11
• {{cite web |access-date=2013-12-27 |archive-date=2012-10-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121023125916/http://www.transparency.org/cpi2010/results |url-status=dead
• {{cite web |access-date=2013-12-27 |archive-date=2013-03-27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130327201510/http://www.transparency.org/cpi2011/results |url-status=dead
• {{cite web |access-date=2013-12-27 |archive-date=2013-05-28 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130528032608/http://www.transparency.org/cpi2012/results |url-status=dead
• {{cite web |access-date=2013-12-24 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131205231107/http://cpi.transparency.org/cpi2013/results/ |archive-date=2013-12-05 |url-status=dead
• {{cite web |access-date=2015-09-24 |archive-date=2015-12-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151202072021/http://www.transparency.org/cpi2014/results |url-status=dead
• {{cite report |access-date=2010-11-07
• {{cite report |access-date=2025-06-15 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130319081559/http://transparency.org.pk/report/ncps%202010/ncps2010A5.pdf |archive-date=2013-03-19
• {{cite journal |access-date=2013-12-24
• {{cite report
• {{cite report
• {{cite report
• {{cite report
• {{cite book |url-access=registration

References

1. "Pakistan country risk report {{!}} GAN Integrity".
2. "Full text of the NICL Judgement of the Supreme Court". [[Supreme Court of Pakistan]].
3. {{harvtxt. Shafqat. 1999
4. {{harvtxt. World Bank. 1983
5. {{harvtxt. World Bank. 1985
6. {{harvtxt. World Bank. 1993
7. {{harvtxt. World Bank. 1997
8. {{harvtxt. Ziring. 2003
9. {{harvtxt. Ahmad. 2001
10. {{harvtxt. Ziring. 2003
11. {{harvtxt. Hippler. 1997
12. {{harvtxt. Federal Research Division. 2004
13. {{harvtxt. Mohiuddin. 2007
14. {{harvtxt. Noman. 1990
15. e.V., Transparency International. "Corruption Perceptions Index 2017". www.transparency.org.
16. (11 February 2025). "The ABCs of the CPI: How the Corruption Perceptions Index is calculated".
17. (11 February 2025). "CPI 2024 for Asia Pacific: Leaders failing to stop corruption amid an escalating climate crisis".
18. (11 February 2025). "Corruption Perceptions Index 2024: Pakistan".
19. Klasra, Rauf. "Modi's media apologists".
20. Haider, Irfan. (2015-07-23). "JC finds 2013 elections 'fair and in accordance with law'". DAWN.COM.
21. (22 April 2005). "FF underbidding to be probed".
22. "Opposition senators' privilege motion rejected – Business Recorder".
23. (6 July 2005). "Probe against former NAB chief sought: Sale of Khoski Sugar Mill".
24. Newspaper, the. (July 2, 2012). "NLC scandal".
25. (August 5, 2015). "Rs4.3b NLC scam: Military probe finds two ex-generals guilty".
26. (August 5, 2015). "Army sentences two former generals in NLC corruption case".
27. (2004). "The Military as an Economic Actor: Soldiers in Business". [[Palgrave Macmillan]].
28. "French divorce holds key to Karachi affair".
29. (30 December 2010). "REPORTER-Kickbacks and commissions in Agosta submarine case-Part-3-Clip-1". Dawn News Network, 2010 P-I.
30. (2006). "Stolen Stripes and Broken Medals: Autobiography of a Senior Naval Officer". Author House.
31. (2001). "Selections from Regional Press". Institute of Regional Studies.
32. {{harvtxt. Transparency International Pakistan. 2002
33. {{harvtxt. Transparency International Pakistan. 2010
34. Hussain, Abid. "'Elite capture': How Pakistan is losing 6 percent of its GDP to corruption".
35. (2018-07-06). "Panama Papers: Former Pakistan PM Sharif Sentenced To 10 Years - ICIJ".
36. (2023-11-29). "Pakistan court overturns ex-PM Nawaz Sharif's graft conviction - lawyer". Reuters.
37. (2025-01-17). "Pakistan: Imran Khan sentenced to 14 years in corruption case".
38. {{harvtxt. Transparency International Pakistan. 2010
39. Mirza, Iqbal. (2 October 2013). "Global Corruption Report Pakistan's education sector affected by corruption: TI". [[Business Recorder]].
40. {{harvtxt. Nature. 2010
41. {{harvtxt. Transparency International Pakistan. 2010
42. {{harvtxt. US Department of State. 2011
43. {{harvtxt. Transparency International Pakistan. 2010
44. {{harvtxt. Transparency International Pakistan. 2002
45. "Downloads".