Ashura

Etymology

ar is an Aramaic word meaning 'tenth'. It may have also been derived from the Syriac words ar or ar. It shares the same root as the Hebrew word 'āsōr. In Arabic, Ashura refers to the tenth day of Muharram, the first month of the Islamic calendar, a month in which fighting has been forbidden since before the advent of Islam.

Likely origins

Fasting on Ashura was likely a Jewish practice adopted by the Islamic prophet Muhammad after his arrival in the city of Medina in 622 CE, perhaps signifying Muhammad's sense of a shared prophetic mission with Moses. Although it remained optional, fasting on Ashura ceased to be a religious obligation after about a year when the relations with the Medinese Jews deteriorated. This transition is often associated with verses 2:183–5 of the Quran, the central religious text in Islam, which explicitly designate Ramadan as the month of fasting. It also seems improbable that Ashura initially coincided with the tenth of Muharram. Instead, Ashura was probably observed at first on the tenth of the first Jewish month of Tishrei, known as Yom Kippur (). The association of Ashura with the tenth of Muharram thus happened later, some time after the Jewish and Muslim calendars diverged. In turn, the calendars began to diverge when Muhammad forbade Jewish-type calendar adjustments in connection with verse 9:37 of the Quran.

In Sunni Islam

A similar origin story for Ashura appears in some Sunni traditions. Alternatively, there are traditions in canonical Sunni collections that describe fasting on Ashura as a pre-Islamic practice among the Quraysh tribe, in which Muhammad also partook while he was in Mecca. Some early Sunni traditions, many classified as unreliable, possibly invented by the Umayyads (), link Ashura to various auspicious events: On this day, Moses parted the Red Sea, Noah disembarked from the Ark, God forgave Adam, Joseph was released from prison, Jesus, Abraham, and Adam were born, Muhammad was conceived, and Jonah was freed from the fish that had swallowed him. Fasting on the ninth of Muharram, known as Tasu'a, was a later addition, probably to distinguish Muslims from Jews.

Customs

In Sunni Islam, ninth and tenth of Muharram are days for voluntary fasting, strongly encouraged by Sunni jurists. While not endorsed by all Sunni scholars, Ashura is further viewed as a day of thanksgiving (ar) to God, a joyous occasion, celebrated through pious acts and acceptable expressions of delight. Ashura is thus an important festival for many Sunnis, in contrast to the Shia, who mourn on this day the slaughter of Muhammad's grandson, Husayn ibn Ali, and his small retinue in the Battle of Karbala in 680. Such Sunni festivities either developed in response to Shia customs on Ashura or with the influence of pre-Islamic traditions. In line with the former view, under the Umayyad caliph Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan (), Ashura was celebrated as a festive public holiday to counter the commemoration of Husayn. The Abbasid caliph al-Qadir () did so too in Baghdad, Iraq. Another instance is the reenactment by a Sunni mob of the Battle of the Camel (656) against Ali ibn Abi Talib, the first Shia imam, in the Buyid-era Baghdad on Ashura 973.

Whatever the case is for their origins, such festivities were firmly established by the time of the Sunni jurist Ibn Taymiyya (), to whom a questioner wrote, observing that people are joyful on Ashura; they bathe, adorn themselves, shake hands with each other, and cook grains. In the Maghreb, for instance, Ashura is celebrated today through fasting, almsgiving, honoring the dead, special dishes, jumping over bonfires, and carnivals. Nevertheless, particularly in South Asia, some Sunnis participated in the Shia rituals on Ashura, at least until modern times. Sufis also commonly commemorated the death of Husayn, more so in the earlier times, despite its variance with the views of the Sunni elite. For Sufis, rather than a tragedy, Ashura celebrates the eternal life of Husayn and his companions, who annihilated themselves in the Divine with their martyrdom.

Ibn Taymiyya

In response to an inquiry about their legal basis, Ibn Taymiyya rejects both mourning and celebrating on Ashura because, he contends, neither was practiced by Muhammad. Ibn Taymiyya does, however, encourage fasting on Ashura to emulate Muhammad. The Islamicist M. Katz questions the judgment of Ibn Taymiyya for not taking into account the Sunni reports that Muhammad fasted to celebrate Ashura, suggesting that Ibn Taymiyya has stripped fasting of its higher meaning.

In Shia Islam

Battle of Karbala

Main article: Battle of Karbala

In Shia Islam, Ashura commemorates the death of Husayn ibn Ali, Muhammad's grandson and the third Shia imam. Husayn was killed, alongside most of his male relatives and his small retinue, on 10 Muharram 61 AH (10 October 680) in the Battle of Karbala against the army of the Umayyad caliph Yazid ibn Mu'awiya (), having been surrounded for some days and deprived of the drinking water of the nearby Euphrates river. After the battle, the women and children in Husayn's camp were taken prisoner and marched to the capital Damascus in Syria. The battle followed failed negotiations and Husayn's refusal to pledge his allegiance to Yazid, who is often portrayed by Muslim historians as impious and immoral. The fight took place in the desert land of Karbala, en route to the nearby Kufa, whose residents had invited Husayn to lead them against Yazid.

Significance

Main article: Mourning of Muharram#Significance

Ashura is a day of mourning and grief for Shia Muslims. It was observed as such by their imams, who also frequently encouraged the Shia community to follow suit. For instance, a tradition attributed to the Shia imam Ali al-Rida () describes Ashura as a day of grieving and somber resignation from material affairs. Shia tradition also dismisses as fabricated those Sunni hadiths that mark Ashura as a joyful occasion. Indeed, traditions attributed to the Shia imams forbid fasting on this day, and promise eternal punishment for those who celebrate Ashura as a day of blessing.

In Shia Islam, Karbala symbolizes the eternal struggle between good and evil, the pinnacle of self-sacrifice, and the ultimate sabotage of Muhammad's prophetic mission. Historically, the event served to crystallize the Shia community into a distinct sect and remains an integral part of their religious identity to date. On the one hand, mourners share in the pain of Husayn and hope to benefit from his intercession on the Day of Judgement. On the other, they view mourning for Husayn as an act of protest against oppression, a struggle for God (ar), and as such an act of worship.

Rituals

Main article: Mourning of Muharram#Muharram rituals in Shia Islam

Another mourning ritual is the dramatic reenactment of Karbala narratives (ar, fa), practiced today in Iran, in the western Gulf shore, and in Lebanon. On Ashura, always the "martyrdom of Husayn" is reenacted in such performances. In Karbala, an annual performance on Ashura reenacts the burning of Husayn's tents after the battle by the Umayyads and the captivity of the women and children. During Muharram, especially on Ashura, processions of mourners (fa, ar) march the streets, chanting dirges and elegies, sometimes accompanied by self-flagellation. For instance, in the ar march in Karbala, male and then female mourners walk barefoot to the shrine of Husayn in the afternoon of Ashura. Depending on the region, processions carry symbolic objects, such as ar (), ar (), ar, and tadjah. ar represents the ensign of Husayn in Karbala, while the last three objects symbolize his bier or tomb.

Terrorist attacks during Ashura

Ashura has sometimes been an occasion for Sunni violence against Shia Muslims, who are often a minority in Muslim communities. In India, for instance, the Sunni activist Ahmad Barelvi () preached against Ashura rituals and, probably with some exaggeration, boasted of destroying thousands of imambargahs, which are buildings dedicated to ritual mourning. Some terrorist attacks against Ashura services are listed below.

• 1940: Bomb thrown at an Ashura procession, Delhi, India, 21 February.
• 1994: Bomb explosion in the Imam Reza shrine, Mashhad, Iran, 20 June, 20 people killed.
• 2004: Bomb explosions, Karbala and Najaf, Iraq, 2 March, over 180 Shia worshipers killed and 5000 injured.
• 2008: Two separate attacks on Ashura processions, Iraq, 19 January, 9 people killed.
• 2009: Bomb explosion in an Ashura procession, Karachi, Pakistan, 28 December, 43 people killed and 60 injured.
• 2011: Multiple bomb explosions in Ashura processions, Central Iraq, 6 December, 30 people killed.
• 2011: Two separate bomb explosions among Ashura mourners, Kabul, Afghanistan, 6 December, 80 people killed and 160 injured.
• 2015: Bomb explosions in a mosque, Dhaka, Bangladesh, 24 October, one worshipper killed and 80 injured.

In the Gregorian calendar

Ashura, tenth of Muharram in the Islamic calendar, corresponds to a different day every year in the Gregorian calendar.

Gallery

File:Tuwairij run 1.jpg|ar march on Ashura, Karbala File:Tuwairij run 2.jpg File:Tuwairij run.jpg|Tuwairij run, 2019 File:Ashura in Syria- 2017 01 (2).jpg|Ashura procession in Syria File:Ashura in Qatif 3.jpg|Shia mourners on Ashura in Saudi Arabia File:Muharram (Al'am) procession Barabanki India (Jan 2009).jpg|Ashura procession in India carrying ars, signifying the ensign of Husayn in Karbala File:Ashura procession in Tehran, Iran.jpg|ar of an Ashura procession in Iran File:Muharram (Ta'ziya) procession Barabanki India (Jan 2009).jpg|In India, ar symbolizes Husayn's bier File:Mourning of Muharram in cities and villages of Iran-342 16 (66).jpg|In Iran, fa symbolizes Husayn's bier File:A tadjah at Hosay.jpg|Tadjah represents Husayn's tomb, Hosay ritual in Trinidad, 1950s File:Tabuik festival.jpg|Submerging tabuiks on Ashura in a mock funeral of Husayn, Indonesia File:Ashura 2016 mourning in Imam Hossein Square, Tehran 05.jpg|Ashura reenactment of the burning of Husayn's tents, Iran

Footnotes

References

References

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2. (2 March 2004). "Blasts at Shia Ceremonies in Iraq Kill More Than 140". The New York Times.
3. (19 January 2008). "Iraqi Shia pilgrims mark holy day".
4. (2009-12-30). "Pakistan Taliban says carried out Karachi bombing". Reuters.
5. (5 December 2011). "Deadly bomb attacks on Shia pilgrims in Iraq". bbc.co.uk.
6. (11 December 2011). "Afghanistan's President Says Death Toll From Shrine Blast Has Risen to at Least 80". [[Fox News]].
7. Harooni, Mirwais. (6 December 2011). "Blasts across Afghanistan target Shia, 59 dead". Reuters.
8. (24 October 2015). "Dhaka blasts: One dead in attack on Shia Ashura ritual". [[BBC News]].
9. Gent, R.H. van. "The Umm al-Qura Calendar of Saudi Arabia".
10. "Hijri to Gregorian Date Converter - Islamic Date Converter".