Amur

Name

The etymology of the name Amur is unknown. One theory dictates that it entered into Russian through either the Evenki word amur or the Even word amar, both meaning "river" in their respective Tungusic languages. However, it is unclear whether Russian borrowed the name Amur from either Tungusic language rather than the other way around. An alternative theory suggests that Amur comes from mur, the word in Dagur, one of the Mongolic languages, for "big river".{{cite web |last1=Piispanen |first1=Peter |title=Languages in Contact: Solon and Dagur |year=2019 |url= https://www.academia.edu/40426256}}

Its ancient Chinese names were Yushui, Wanshui and Heishui, with the latter name, meaning "black water", being the basis of the modern Chinese name Heilongjiang or "Black Dragon River", while the Manchurian name Sahaliyan Ula, the Mongolian names "Amar mörön" (Cyrillic: Амар мөрөн) originates from the name "Amar" meaning to rest and Khar mörön (Cyrillic: Хар мөрөн) mean Black River.

Course

The river rises in the hills in the western part of Northeast China at the confluence of its two major affluents, the Shilka and the Argun (or Ergune), at an elevation of 303 m. It flows east forming the border between China and Russia, and slowly makes a great arc to the southeast for about 400 km, receiving many tributaries and passing many small towns. At Huma, it is joined by a major tributary, the Huma He. Afterwards it continues to flow south until, between the cities of Blagoveshchensk in Russia and Heihe in China, it widens significantly as it is joined by one of its most important tributaries the Zeya.

The Amur arcs to the east and turns southeast again at the confluence with the Bureya, then does not receive another significant tributary for nearly 250 km before its confluence with its largest tributary, the Songhua, at Tongjiang. At the confluence with the Songhua the river turns northeast, now flowing towards Khabarovsk, where it joins the Ussuri and ceases to define the Russia–China border. Now the river spreads out dramatically into a braided character, flowing north-northeast through a wide valley in eastern Russia, passing Amursk and Komsomolsk-on-Amur. The valley narrows after about 200 km and the river again flows north onto plains at the confluence with the Amgun. Shortly after, the Amur turns sharply east and into an estuary at Nikolayevsk-on-Amur, about 20 km downstream of which it flows into the Strait of Tartary.

During years with heavy precipitation, the Amur river system is connected with the Kherlen river. The normally exit−less endorheic lake Hulun Lake, into which Kherlen flows, will overflow at its northern shore through the arroyo of Mutnaya Protoka, and the water will meet the Argun River (Ergune) after about 30 km. The Amur Basin of the Kherlen−Argun−Amur River system has a total length of 5,052 km to its river mouth on the Sea of Okhotsk.

Tributaries

The largest tributaries of the Amur are, from source to mouth:

• Argun (right)
• Shilka (left)
• Amazar (left)
• Oldoy (left)
• Huma (right)
• Zeya (left)
• Bureya (left)
• Songhua (right)
• Bira (left)
• Ussuri (right)
• Tunguska (left)
• Anyuy (right)
• Gur (right)
• Gorin (left)
• Amgun (left) There are also numerous lakes in the floodplain of the Amur. Some of the largest ones are Bolon, Khummi and Udyl.

The main tributaries from the mouth:

(1)Amur–Shilka–Onon: 4,354 km; (2)Amur–Argun–Hailar–Dayan: 4,444 km; (3)Amur–Argun–Dalan Orom–Kherlen: 5,052 km;

History and context

Many historical references distinguish two geopolitical entities in the area of the Amur: Manchuria (Northeast China) and Outer Manchuria. The Chinese province of Heilongjiang on the south bank of the river takes its name from the river, as does the Russian Amur Oblast on the north bank. The native Manchu people and their Qing Empire of China, who regarded this river as sacred, use the name Sahaliyan Ula (Black River).

The Amur is an important symbol of, and geopolitical factor in, Chinese–Russian relations. The Amur became especially prominent in the period of the Sino–Soviet political split of 1956–1966.

For many centuries, inhabitants of the Amur Valley comprised the Tungusic (Evenki, Solon, Ducher, Jurchen, Nanai, Ulch), Mongol (Daur) people, some Ainu and, near its mouth, the Nivkhs. For many of these groups, fishing in the Amur and its tributaries was the main source of their livelihood. Until the 17th century, those peoples were not known to Europeans, and little known to the Han Chinese, who sometimes collectively described them as the Wild Jurchens. The Chinese-language term Yúpí Dázi 魚皮韃子 ("Fish-skin Tatars") came to apply to the Nanais and related groups as well, owing to their traditional clothes made of fish skins.

The Mongols, ruling the region as the Yuan dynasty, established a tenuous military presence on the lower Amur in the 13th and the 14th centuries; ruins of a Yuan-era temple have been excavated near the village of Tyr.

During the early-15th-century reigns of the Yongle and the Xuande Emperors, the Ming dynasty reached the Amur in their drive to establish control over the lands adjacent to the Ming Empire to the northeast, which would later become known as Manchuria. Expeditions headed by the eunuch Yishiha reached Tyr several times between 1411 and the early 1430s, re-building (twice) the Yongning Temple and obtaining at least the nominal allegiance of the lower Amur's tribes to the Ming government. Some sources report also a Chinese presence during the same period on the middle Amur – a fort existed at Aigun for about 20 years during the Yongle era on the left (northwestern) shore of the Amur downstream from the mouth of the Zeya River. This Ming Dynasty Aigun was located on the opposite bank to the later Aigun that was later relocated during the Qing Dynasty. In any event, the Ming presence on the Amur was as short-lived as it was tenuous; soon after the end of the Yongle era, the Ming dynasty's frontiers retreated to southern Manchuria.

Chinese cultural and religious influence such as Chinese New Year, the "Chinese god", Chinese motifs like the dragon, spirals, scrolls, and material goods like agriculture, husbandry, heating, iron cooking-pots, silk, and cotton spread among Amur natives such as the Udeghes, Ulchis, and Nanais.

Russian Cossack expeditions led by Vassili Poyarkov and Yerofey Khabarov explored the Amur and its tributaries in 1643-44 and 1649-51, respectively. From 1640s to 1980s the Cossacks collected tribute from local peoples. They also established the fort of Albazin on the upper Amur.

At the time, the Manchus were busy with conquering China; but a few decades later, during the Kangxi era of 1661–1722, they turned their attention to their north-Manchurian backyard. Aigun was re-established near the supposed Ming site in about 1683–84, and a military expeditions went upstream to dislodge the Russians, whose Albazin establishment deprived the Manchu rulers of the tribute of sable pelts that the Solons and Daurs of the area would supply otherwise. Albazin fell during a short military campaign in 1685. The Treaty of Nerchinsk, concluded in 1689, marked the end of the hostilities: it left the entire Amur valley, from the convergence of the Shilka and the Ergune downstream, in Chinese hands.

Fedor Soimonov was commissioned in 1753 to map the then little explored area of the Amur, the actual expedition taking place in 1757. He mapped the Shilka, which was partly in Chinese territory, but was turned back when he reached its confluence with the Argun. The Russian proselytization of Orthodox Christianity to the indigenous peoples along the Amur was viewed as a threat by the Qing.

The Amur region remained a relative backwater of the Qing Empire for the next century and a half, with Aigun being practically the only major town on the river. Russians reappeared on the river in the mid-19th century, which forced the Manchus to yield all lands north of the river to the Russian Empire by the Treaty of Aigun (1858). Lands east of the Ussuri and the lower Amur were acquired by Russia as well, by the Convention of Peking (1860).

File:Ravenstein-Tyr-monument-196.png|A remnant of Yishiha's monuments at Tyr File:CEM-44-La-Chine-la-Tartarie-Chinoise-et-le-Thibet-1734-Amur-2572.jpg|The Amur (under its Manchu name, Saghalien Oula) and its tributaries on a 1734 map by Jean Baptiste Bourguignon d'Anville, based upon maps of Jesuits in China. Albazin is shown as Jaxa, the old (Ming) site of Aigun as Aihom and the later, Qing Aigun, as Saghalien Oula. File:Goldi village along the Amur River, north of Khabarovsk LCCN2004708126.jpg|Nanai village along the Amur, north of Khabarovsk, 1895

Bridges and tunnels

ᡠᠯᠠ

The first permanent bridge across the Amur, the Khabarovsk Bridge with an overall length of 2590 m, was completed in 1916, allowing the trains on the Trans-Siberian Railway to cross the river year-round without using ferries or rail tracks on top of the river ice. In 1941 a railway tunnel was added as well.

Later, a combined road and rail bridge over the Amur at Komsomolsk-on-Amur (1975; 1400 m) and the road and rail Khabarovsk Bridge (1999; 3890 m) were constructed.

The Tongjiang-Nizhneleninskoye railway bridge was proposed in 2007 by Valery Solomonovich Gurevich, the vice-chairman of the Jewish Autonomous Oblast in Russia. The railway bridge over the Amur will connect Tongjiang with Nizhneleninskoye, a village in the Jewish Autonomous Oblast. The Chinese portion of the bridge was finished in July 2016. In December 2016, work began on the Russian portion of the bridge. Completion of structural link between the two sides of the bridge was completed in March 2019. Opening to rail traffic has been repeatedly delayed, with the December 2019 estimate being "the end of 2020", and then 3rd quarter of 2021.

Wildlife

It is believed there are at least 123 species of fish from 23 families inhabiting the Amur. The majority are of the Gobioninae subfamily of Cypriniformes, followed in number by Salmonidae. Several of the species are endemic. Pseudaspius and Mesocottus are monotypic genera found only in the Amur and some nearby coastal rivers. Other animals inhabiting this region include the Amur falcon, Amur leopard and Amur tiger; while some notable local flora include Amur cork tree, Amur maple and the Amur honeysuckle.

Four species of the Acipenseridae family can be found: the kaluga, Amur sturgeon, Sakhalin sturgeon and sterlet. The Kaluga and Amur sturgeon are endemic. The sterlet was introduced from the Ob in the 1950s. This region is home to the Kaluga fish (Acipenseriformes).

Direction

Flowing across northeast Asia for over 4444 km (including its two tributaries), from the mountains of northeastern China to the Sea of Okhotsk (near Nikolayevsk-na-Amure), it drains a remarkable watershed that includes diverse landscapes of desert, steppe, tundra, and taiga, eventually emptying into the Pacific Ocean through the Strait of Tartary, where the mouth of the river faces the northern end of the island of Sakhalin.

The Amur has always been closely associated with the island of Sakhalin at its mouth, and most names for the island, even in the languages of the indigenous peoples of the region, are derived from the name of the river: "Sakhalin" derives from a Tungusic dialectal form cognate with Manchu sahaliyan ("black", as in sahaliyan ula, "Black River"), while Ainu and Japanese "Karaputo" or "Karafuto" is derived from the Ainu name of the Amur or its mouth. Anton Chekhov vividly described the Amur in writings about his journey to Sakhalin Island in 1890.

The average annual discharge varies from 6000 m3/s (1980) to 12000 m3/s (1957), leading to an average 9819 m3/s or 310 km3 per year. The maximum runoff measured occurred in Oct 1951 with 30700 m3/s whereas the minimum discharge was recorded in March 1946 with a mere 514 m3/s.

References

| doi-access = free

References

1. "Amur River".
2. (2008). "Amur-Heilong River Basin Reader". Ecosystems.
3. (2023). "Intra-Seasonal Variability of Sea Level on the Southwestern Bering Sea Shelf and Its Impact on the East Kamchatka and East Sakhalin Currents". Remote Sensing.
4. "Drainage Basins of the Sea of Okhotsk and Sea of Japan".
5. (2023). "A hydraulic model of the Amur River informed by ICESat-2 elevation". Hydrological.
6. "Variations of the Present-Day Annual and Seasonal Runoff in the Far East and Siberia with the Use of Regional Hydrological and Global Climate Models".
7. Tilman, Eric. "Rivers Network - Heilong Jiang (Amur)".
8. Liaoning province's archive, ''Manchu Veritable Record Upper Vol''《滿洲實錄上函/manju-i yargiyan kooli dergi dobton》
9. [http://bse.sci-lib.com/article049012.html Амур (река в Азии)], ''[[Great Soviet Encyclopedia]]''
10. link. (2019-02-18 Retrieved 17 February 2019.)
11. link. (November 30, 2012 Topic ed. Peter Saundry)
12. Farkas, B., T. Ziegler, C.T. Pham, A.V. Ong and U. Fritz (2019). A new species of Pelodiscus from northeastern Indochina (Testudines, Trionychidae). ZooKeys 824: 71-86. {{doi. 10.3897/zookeys.824.31376
13. Yi Zhang; Xu Lu; Shaoxiao Zeng; Xuhui Huang; Zebin Guo; Yafeng Zheng; Yuting Tian; Baodong Zheng (2015). "Nutritional composition, physiological functions and processing of lotus (Nelumbo nucifera Gaertn.) seeds: a review". Phytochem Rev. 14 (3): 321–334. {{doi. 10.1007/s11101-015-9401-9
14. ''[https://pfeil-verlag.de/wp-content/uploads/2015/05/ief19_4_03.pdf The fishes of the Amur River:updated check-list and zoogeography] {{Webarchive. link. (2020-02-04 '')
15. Source elevation derived from [[Google Earth]]
16. (27 June 2003). "The Amur River border. Once a symbol of conflict, could it turn into a water resource stake?". Cybergeo.
17. (15 February 2021). "Wetland changes in the Amur River Basin: Differing trends and proximate causes on the Chinese and Russian sides". Journal of Environmental Management.
18. {{Cite EB1911
19. "Untitled Document".
20. 20030300112118100000012. Река Амур
21. "Хабаровский край".
22. "Государственный водный реестр: река АМУР".
23. Peter Bellwood; Immanuel Ness (10 November 2014). ''The Global Prehistory of Human Migration''. John Wiley & Sons. p. 227. {{ISBN. 978-1-118-97059-1.
24. Hölzl, Andreas. (2018). "Udi, Udihe, and the language(s) of the Kyakala". International Journal of Diachronic Linguistics and Linguistic Reconstruction.
25. Головачев В. Ц. (V. Ts. Golovachev), [http://www.ethnonet.ru/ru/pub/14-11-08.html «Тырские стелы и храм "Юн Нин" в свете китайско-чжурчжэньских отношений XIV—XV вв.»] {{webarchive. link. (2009-02-23 (The Tyr Stelae and the Yongning Temple viewed in the context of Sino-Jurchen relations of the 14-15th centuries) ''Этно-Журнал'', 2008-11-14. {{in lang). ru
26. L. Carrington Godrich, Chaoying Fang (editors), "Dictionary of Ming Biography, 1368–1644". Volume I (A-L). Columbia University Press, 1976. {{ISBN. 0-231-03801-1
27. Shih-Shan Henry Tsai, "Perpetual Happiness: The Ming Emperor Yongle". Published by University of Washington Press, 2002. {{ISBN. link. (2017-01-10 on Google Books. pp. 158-159.)
28. Du Halde, Jean-Baptiste. (2017-01-10). "Description géographique, historique, chronologique, politique et physique de l'empire de la Chine et de la Tartarie chinoise". P.G. Lemercier.
29. link. (2016-05-14 , p. 214.)
30. Du Halde (1735), pp. 15-16
31. (2013). "Saints for Shamans? Culture, Religion and Borderland Politics in Amuria from the". Central Asiatic Journal.
32. "The Convention of Peking of 1860 is concluded".
33. [http://english.peopledaily.com.cn/200706/19/eng20070619_385591.html Proposed bridge to boost bilateral trade] {{Webarchive. link. (2013-05-28, China Daily, June 19, 2007.)
34. (July 16, 2016). "An Unfinished Bridge, and Partnership, Between Russia and China". The New York Times.
35. (March 21, 2019). "Russia Completes Construction of First-Ever Rail Bridge to China". [[The Moscow Times]].
36. (March 21, 2019). "Россия и Китай соединили железнодорожный мост через Амур". [[RBK Group]].
37. "Railway bridge over Amur river to China will be built by end of 2020, envoy says".
38. "Новости Хабаровска".
39. (June 2019). "Impact of Deforestation on Streamflow in the Amur River Basin". Geosciences.
40. ''[https://link.springer.com/article/10.1023/A:1007358027263 Endemic sturgeons of the Amur River: kaluga, Huso dauricus, and Amur sturgeon, Acipenser schrencki] {{Webarchive. link. (2020-02-04 '')
41. "Amur at Komsomolsk". [[UNESCO]].