1948 Italian general election

Electoral system

The pure party-list proportional representation chosen two years before for the election of the Constituent Assembly was adopted for the Chamber of Deputies. Italian provinces were divided into 31 constituencies, each electing a group of candidates. In each constituency, seats were divided between open lists using the largest remainder method with the Imperiali quota. Remaining votes and seats transferred to the national level, where special closed lists of national leaders received the last seats using the Hare quota.

For the Senate, 237 single-seat constituencies were created. The candidates needed a two-thirds majority to be elected, but only 15 aspiring senators were elected this way. All remaining votes and seats were grouped in party lists and regional constituencies, where the D'Hondt method was used: Inside the lists, candidates with the best percentages were elected.

This electoral system became standard in Italy, and was used until 1993.

Parties and leaders

Campaign

The election remain unmatched in verbal aggression and fanaticism in Italy's period of democracy. According to the historian Gianni Corbi the 1948 election was "the most passionate, the most important, the longest, the dirtiest, and the most uncertain electoral campaign in Italian history". The election was between two competing visions of the future of Italian society. On the right, a Roman Catholic, conservative and capitalist Italy, represented by the governing Christian Democrats of De Gasperi. On the left a secular, revolutionary and socialist society, linked to the Soviet Union and represented by the FDP coalition led by the PCI.

The Christian Democrat campaign pointed to the recent communist coup in Czechoslovakia. It warned that in Communist countries, "children send parents to jail", "children are owned by the state", and told voters that disaster would strike Italy if the Communists were to take power. Another slogan was "In the secrecy of the polling booth, God sees you – Stalin doesn't."

The FDP campaign focused on living standards and avoided embarrassing questions of foreign policy, such as UN membership (vetoed by the Soviet Union) and Yugoslav control of Trieste, or losing American financial and food aid. The PCI led the FDP coalition and had effectively marginalised the PSI, which suffered loss in terms of parliamentary seats and political power. The PSI had also been hurt by the secession of a social-democratic faction led by Giuseppe Saragat, which contested the election with the concurrent list of Socialist Unity.

The PCI had difficulties in restraining its more militant members, who, in the period immediately after the war, had engaged in violent acts of reprisals. The areas affected by the violence (the so-called "Red Triangle" of Emilia, or parts of Liguria around Genoa and Savona, for instance) had previously seen episodes of brutality committed by the Fascists during Benito Mussolini's regime and the Italian Resistance during the Allied advance through Italy.

Conduct

Main article: CIA activities in Italy}}{{See also, Foreign interventions by the United States

The 1948 general election was greatly influenced by the Cold War that was underway between the Soviet Union and the United States. After his defeat in the election, PCI leader Palmiro Togliatti stated on 22 April that: "The elections were not free... Brutal foreign intervention was used consisting of a threat to starve the country by withholding ERP aid if it voted for the Democratic Front... The menace to use the atom bomb against towns or regions" that voted pro-communist. The U.S. government's Voice of America radio began broadcasting anti-Communist propaganda to Italy on 24 March 1948. The CIA, by its own admission, gave US$1 million (equivalent to $ in ) to what they referred to as "center parties" and was accused of publishing forged letters to discredit the leaders of the PCI. The National Security Act of 1947, that made foreign covert operations possible, had been signed into law about six months earlier by the American President Harry S. Truman.

U.S. agencies also sent ten million letters, made numerous short-wave radio broadcasts, and funded the publishing of books and articles, all of which warned Italians of the "consequences" of a communist victory. Overall, the U.S. funnelled $10 million to $20 million (equivalent to $ to $ in ) into the country for specifically anti-PCI purposes. The CIA also made use of off-the-books sources of financing to interfere in the election: millions of dollars from the Economic Cooperation Administration affiliated with the Marshall Plan and more than $10 million in captured Nazi money were steered to anti-communist propaganda. In this regard, CIA operative F. Mark Wyatt claimed: "We had bags of money that we delivered to selected politicians, to defray their political expenses, their campaign expenses, for posters, for pamphlets."

Wyatt also claimed that, in the lead up to the election, the PCI received exorbitant funds of up to $10 million per month from the Soviet Union and that Italian authorities were aware of the Soviets' activities. Italian historian Alessandro Brogi dismisses the CIA's claims as "overexaggerated" and notes that the Soviets only undertook "ad hoc last minute diplomatic [and] financial action" because it feared that inaction in Italy would set a precedent for U.S. intervention in Eastern Europe. Despite amicable meetings in the postwar years between top PCI official Pietro Secchia and Soviet leader Joseph Stalin, the Soviets were apprehensive about committing to Italy financially and only provided "occasional and modest" funds to the PCI.

The Christian Democrats eventually won the 1948 election with 48 per cent of the vote, and the FDP received 31 per cent. The CIA's practice of influencing the political situation was repeated in every Italian election for at least the next 24 years.

The Irish government, motivated by the country's devout Catholicism, also interfered in the election by funnelling the modern day equivalent of €2 million through the Irish Embassy to the Vatican, which then distributed it to Catholic politicians. Joseph Walshe, Ireland's ambassador to the Vatican, had privately suggested secretly funding Azione Cattolica.

Results

Christian Democracy won a sweeping victory, taking 48.5 per cent of the vote and 305 seats in the Chamber of Deputies and 131 seats in the Senate. With an absolute majority in both chambers, DC leader and premier Alcide De Gasperi could have formed an exclusively DC government. Instead, he formed a "centrist" coalition with Liberals, Republicans and Social Democrats. De Gasperi formed three ministries during the parliamentary term, the second one in 1950 after the defection of the Liberals, who hoped for more rightist politics, and the third one in 1951 after the defection of the Social-democrats, who hoped for more leftist politics.

Following a provision of the new republican constitution, all living democratic deputies elected during the 1924 general election and deposed by the National Fascist Party in 1926, automatically became members of the first republican Senate.

Chamber of Deputies

By constituency

Senate of the Republic

By constituency

Notes

References

References

1. (2010). "Elections in Europe: A data handbook". Nomos.
2. (22 March 1948). "ITALY: Fateful Day".
3. (July 2004). "The Soviet Dimension of Italian Communism". Journal of Cold War Studies.
4. Ventresca, ''From Fascism to Democracy'', [https://books.google.com/books?id=OKA6i7SenW0C&pg=PA4 p. 4]
5. [https://content.time.com/time/subscriber/article/0,33009,779791,00.html "ITALY: Show of Force"], TIME Magazine, 12 April 1948
6. [https://content.time.com/time/subscriber/article/0,33009,798374,00.html "THE NATIONS: How to Hang On"] {{Webarchive. link. (17 August 2021 , TIME Magazine, 19 April 1948)
7. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/4087420.stm "Fertility vote galvanises Vatican"], BBC News, 13 June 2005
8. [http://legislature.camera.it/frameset.asp?content=%2Faltre%5Fsezionism%2F8793%2F8992%2Fdocumentotesto%2Easp%3F "Number of MPs for each political group during the First Legislature"], Italian Chamber of Deputies website.
9. Brogi, ''Confronting America'', [https://books.google.com/books?id=QZgAy_WPUBoC&pg=PA101 pp. 101–110]
10. "Italian elections," ''Facts on File'' 18 – 24 April 1948, p. 125G.
11. " Italy and Trieste," ''Facts on File'' 21 – 27 March 1948, p. 93E
12. CIA memorandum to the Forty Committee (National Security Council), presented to the Select Committee on Intelligence, [[United States House of Representatives]] (the Pike Committee) during closed hearings held in 1975. The bulk of the committee's report that contained the memorandum was leaked to the press in February 1976 and first appeared in book form as ''CIA – The Pike Report'' (Nottingham, England, 1977). The memorandum appears on pp. 204–5 of this book.
13. (1998–1999). "CNN Cold War Episode 3: Marshall Plan. Interview with F. Mark Wyatt, former CIA operative in Italy during the election.". [[CNN.
14. Corke, Sarah-Jane. (12 September 2007). "US Covert Operations and Cold War Strategy: Truman, Secret Warfare and the CIA, 1945–53". Routledge.
15. Peter Dale Scott, [https://apjjf.org/-Peter-Dale-Scott/3436/article.html "Operation Paper: The United States and Drugs in Thailand and Burma" 米国とタイ・ビルマの麻薬] {{Webarchive. link. (18 April 2021 , ''Asia-Pacific Journal Japan Focus'', 1 November 2010, Volume 8, Issue 44, Number 2, citing Christopher Andrew, ''For the President’s Eyes Only'' (New York: HarperCollins, 1995), 172)
16. [https://www.nytimes.com/2006/07/06/us/06wyatt.html F. Mark Wyatt, 86, C.I.A. Officer, Is Dead] {{Webarchive. link. (29 March 2021 , The New York Times, 6 July 2006)
17. This was disputed by the PCI, which voiced its frustration at the Soviets' lack of support for the FDP's campaign.Brogi, ''Confronting America'', [https://books.google.com/books?id=QZgAy_WPUBoC&pg=PA109 p. 109]
18. Pons, Silvio (2001), [http://www.people.fas.harvard.edu/~hpcws/3.2pons.pdf "Stalin, Togliatti, and the Origins of the Cold War in Europe"] {{Webarchive. link. (3 August 2021 , ''Journal of Cold War Studies'', Volume 3, Number 2, Spring 2001, pp. 3–27)
19. Ventresca, ''From Fascism to Democracy'', [https://books.google.com/books?id=OKA6i7SenW0C&pg=PA269 p. 269]
20. Callanan, ''Covert Action in the Cold War'', [https://books.google.com/books?id=pXIAAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA41 pp. 41–45]
21. Daniele Ganser. (October 2005). "N.A.T.O. Gladio, and the strategy of tension". NATO's Secret Armies. Operation Gladio and Terrorism in Western Europe.
22. [https://www.irishtimes.com/news/politics/irish-state-secretly-intervened-in-italian-1948-general-election-1.2002970 "Irish state secretly intervened in Italian 1948 general election"] {{Webarchive. link. (11 November 2020 , ''Irish Times'')
23. link. (3 March 2016)
24. link. (4 March 2016)