Fringe science

Description

The boundary between fringe science and pseudoscience is disputed. Friedlander writes that there is no widespread understanding of what separates science from nonscience or pseudoscience. Pseudoscience, however, is something that is not scientific but is incorrectly characterised as science.

The term may be considered pejorative. For example, Lyell D. Henry Jr. wrote, "Fringe science [is] a term also suggesting kookiness."

Continental drift was rejected for decades lacking conclusive evidence before plate tectonics was accepted.

Examples

Historical

Some historical ideas that are considered to have been refuted by mainstream science are:

• Wilhelm Reich's work with orgone, a physical energy he claimed to have discovered, contributed to his alienation from the psychiatric community. He was eventually sentenced to two years in a federal prison, where he died. At that time and continuing today, scientists disputed his claim that he had scientific evidence for the existence of orgone. Nevertheless, amateurs and a few fringe researchers continued to believe that orgone is real.
• Focal infection theory (FIT), as the primary cause of systemic disease, rapidly became accepted by mainstream dentistry and medicine after World War I. This acceptance was largely based upon what later turned out to be fundamentally flawed studies. As a result, millions of people were subjected to needless dental extractions and surgeries. The original studies supporting FIT began falling out of favor in the 1930s. By the late 1950s, it was regarded as a fringe theory.
• The Clovis First theory held that the Clovis culture was the first culture in North America. It was long regarded as a mainstream theory until mounting evidence of a pre-Clovis culture discredited it.

Modern

Relatively recent fringe sciences include:

• Aubrey de Grey, featured in a 2006 60 Minutes special report, is studying human longevity. He calls his work "strategies for engineered negligible senescence" (SENS). Many mainstream scientists believe his research is fringe science (especially his view of the importance of nuclear epimutations and his timeline for antiaging therapeutics). In a 2005 article in Technology Review (part of a larger series), it was stated that "SENS is highly speculative. Many of its proposals have not been reproduced, nor could they be reproduced with today's scientific knowledge and technology. Echoing Myhrvold, we might charitably say that de Grey's proposals exist in a kind of antechamber of science, where they wait (possibly in vain) for independent verification. SENS does not compel the assent of many knowledgeable scientists; but neither is it demonstrably wrong."
• A nuclear fusion reaction called cold fusion, which occurs near room temperature and pressure, was reported by chemists Martin Fleischmann and Stanley Pons in March 1989. Numerous research efforts at the time were unable to replicate their results. Subsequently, several scientists have worked on cold fusion or have participated in international conferences on it. In 2004, the United States Department of Energy commissioned a panel on cold fusion to reexamine the concept. They wanted to determine whether their policies should be altered because of new evidence.
• The theory of abiogenic petroleum origin holds that petroleum was formed from deep carbon deposits, perhaps dating to the formation of the Earth. The ubiquity of hydrocarbons in the Solar System may be evidence that there may be more petroleum on Earth than commonly thought and that petroleum may originate from carbon-bearing fluids that migrate upward from the Earth's mantle. Abiogenic hypotheses saw a revival in the last half of the twentieth century by Russian and Ukrainian scientists. More interest was generated in the West after the 1992 publication by Thomas Gold of the journal article, "The Deep, Hot Biosphere". Gold's version of the theory is partly based on the existence of a biosphere composed of thermophile bacteria in the Earth's crust, which might explain the existence of specific biomarkers in extracted petroleum.

Accepted as mainstream

Some theories that were once rejected as fringe science but were eventually accepted as mainstream science include:

• Plate tectonics
• The existence of Troy
• Heliocentrism
• Norse colonization of the Americas
• The Big Bang theory
• Helicobacter pylori bacteria as the causative agent of peptic ulcer disease
• The germ theory of disease
• Neanderthal-Homo sapiens hybridization

Responding to fringe science

Michael W. Friedlander has suggested some guidelines for responding to fringe science, which, he argues, is a more difficult problem than scientific misconduct. His suggested methods include impeccable accuracy, checking cited sources, not overstating orthodox science, thorough understanding of the Wegener continental drift example, examples of orthodox science investigating radical proposals, and prepared examples of errors from fringe scientists.

Friedlander suggests that fringe science is necessary so mainstream science will not atrophy. Scientists must evaluate the plausibility of each new fringe claim, and certain fringe discoveries "will later graduate into the ranks of accepted" — while others "will never receive confirmation".

Margaret Wertheim profiled many "outsider scientists" in her book Physics on the Fringe, who receive little or no attention from professional scientists. She describes all of them as trying to make sense of the world using the scientific method but in the face of being unable to understand modern science's complex theories. She also finds it fair that credentialed scientists do not bother spending a lot of time learning about and explaining problems with the fringe theories of uncredentialed scientists since the authors of those theories have not taken the time to understand the mainstream theories they aim to disprove.

Controversies

As Donald E. Simanek asserts, "Too often speculative and tentative hypotheses of cutting edge science are treated as if they were scientific truths, and so accepted by a public eager for answers." However, the public is ignorant that "As science progresses from ignorance to understanding it must pass through a transitional phase of confusion and uncertainty."

The media also play a role in propagating the belief that certain fields of science are controversial. In their 2003 paper "Optimising Public Understanding of Science and Technology in Europe: A Comparative Perspective", Jan Nolin et al. write that "From a media perspective it is evident that controversial science sells, not only because of its dramatic value, but also since it is often connected to high-stake societal issues."

References

Bibliography

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{{cite book |author-link=Michael Brooks (science writer) |title-link=13 Things That Don't Make Sense

References

1. Dutch, Steven I. (January 1982). "Notes on the nature of fringe science". Journal of Geological Education.
2. Friedlander, Michael W.. (1995). "At the Fringes of Science".
3. Isaac Asimov. (1980). "Left Hand of the Electron". [[Bantam Books]].
4. David Bell. (December 1999). "Secret science". Science and Public Policy.
5. Beyerstein, Barry L.. (July 1995). "Distinguishing Science from Pseudoscience".
6. Henry Lyell D.. (1981). "Unorthodox science as a popular activity". [[The Journal of American Culture]].
7. (12 March 1957). "Two Scientists Jailed; Pair Sentenced in Maine in Sale of 'Accumulators'". The New York Times.
8. Williams, William F.. (2000). "Encyclopedia of Pseudoscience: From Alien Abductions to Zone Therapy". Facts on File.
9. Gordin, Michael D.. (2012). "The Pseudoscience Wars: Immanuel Velikovsky and the Birth of the Modern Fringe". University of Chicago Press.
10. Klee, Gerald D.. (2005). "THE RESURRECTION OF WILHELM REICH AND ORGONE THERAPY". The Scientific Review of Mental Health Practice.
11. Simon, Matt. (26 November 2014). "Fantastically Wrong: Why Is the Sky Blue? It's Packed With Sexy Energy, of Course".
12. "Orgone Energy". Zephyr Technology.
13. Pallasch, TJ. (March 2000). "The focal infection theory: appraisal and reappraisal.". Journal of the California Dental Association.
14. Whitley, David S. (2009) ''Cave paintings and the human spirit'' p. 98
15. Waters, Michael. (25 March 2011). "The Buttermilk Creek Complex and the Origins of Clovis at the Debra L. Friedkin Site, Texas". Science.
16. Wilford, John. (2011-03-24). "Arrowheads Found in Texas Dial Back Arrival of Humans in America". The New York Times.
17. (2005-12-28). "The quest for immortality: Want to live 500 years? One scientist says it may be possible one day". CBS News.
18. (Nov 2005). "Science fact and the SENS agenda. What can we reasonably expect from ageing research?". EMBO Reports.
19. Pontin, Jason. (2006-07-11). "Is defeating aging only a dream?". Technology Review.
20. "A report from the American Physical Society spring meeting – 1–2 May 1989 Baltimore, MD Special session on cold fusion".
21. Gold, Thomas. (1992). "The Deep, Hot Biosphere". PNAS.
22. Bell, David, 2005, ''Science, Technology and Culture'', Open University Press, p. 134, {{ISBN. 978-0-335-21326-9
23. [[Naomi Oreskes. Oreskes, Naomi]] (2003), ''Plate tectonics: an insider's history of the modern theory of the Earth'' p. 72
24. Conklin, Wendy (2005) ''Mysteries in History: Ancient History'' p. 39
25. Hunt, Patrick (2007) ''Ten Discoveries That Rewrote History''
26. JDobrzycki J Editor (1973) ''The reception of Copernicus' heliocentric theory'' p. 311
27. Lemonick, Michael D. (2003) ''Echo of the Big Bang'' Princeton University Press p. 7
28. Beyerstein, Barry L.. (July 1995). "Distinguishing science from pseudoscience".
29. Velasquez-Manoff, Moises. (2013). "An Epidemic of Absence: A New Way of Understanding Allergies and Autoimmune Diseases". Simon and Schuster.
30. [http://podcastdownload.npr.org/anon.npr-podcasts/podcast/77/510036/143369581/KERA_143369581.mp3 NPR Podcast]
31. Simanek, Donald. "Cutting edge science".
32. Nolin, Jan. "Optimising public understanding of science: A comparative perspective".