Taruma language
Divergent language of South America
title: "Taruma language" type: doc version: 1 created: 2026-02-28 author: "Wikipedia contributors" status: active scope: public tags: ["indigenous-languages-of-south-america", "languages-of-brazil", "extinct-languages-of-south-america", "articles-citing-iso-change-requests", "language-isolates-of-south-america"] description: "Divergent language of South America" topic_path: "linguistics" source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taruma_language" license: "CC BY-SA 4.0" wikipedia_page_id: 0 wikipedia_revision_id: 0
::summary Divergent language of South America ::
::data[format=table title="Infobox language"]
| Field | Value |
|---|---|
| name | Taruma |
| nativename | hodjasu dzudzu |
| state | Guyana, formerly Brazil & Suriname |
| region | South of Aishalton |
| speakers | 3 |
| date | 2022 |
| ref | |
| familycolor | American |
| fam1 | Language isolate (Katembri–Taruma ?) |
| iso3 | tdm |
| linglist | qoi |
| glotto | taru1236 |
| glottorefname | Taruma |
| ethnicity | Taruma people |
| altname | Saluma |
| :: |
| name = Taruma | nativename = hodjasu dzudzu | state = Guyana, formerly Brazil & Suriname | region = South of Aishalton | speakers = 3 | date = 2022 | ref = | familycolor = American | fam1 = Language isolate (Katembri–Taruma ?) | iso3 = tdm | linglist = qoi | glotto = taru1236 | glottorefname = Taruma | ethnicity = Taruma people | altname = Saluma
Taruma (Taruamá) is a nearly extinct, divergent language isolate of northeastern South America. It has been reported to be extinct several times since as far back as 1770, but Eithne Carlin discovered the last three speakers living in Maruranau among the Wapishana, and is documenting the language. The people and language are known as Saluma in Suriname.
Classification
Taruma is a language isolate. It has been proposed to be distantly related to Katembri, but this relationship has not been repeated in recent surveys of South American languages.
History
Taruma was spoken around the mouth of the Rio Negro during the late 1600s, but the speakers later moved to southern Guyana. In the 1940s, the Taruma tribe were reported to no longer exist as a distinct group. However, their presence has recently been confirmed in the Wapishana village of Marunarau, where they are recognized as a distinct tribe. Only one of the three knows Taruma well enough to produce "coherent texts", and the other two have "a much weaker knowledge" of Taruma.
Language contact
Jolkesky (2016) notes that there are lexical similarities with the Chibchan, Katukina-Katawixi, Arawak, Jeoromitxi, Tupi, Arawa, Jivaro, Karib, Mura-Matanawi, Tukano, Yanomami, and Kwaza language families due to contact.
The following table illustrates some of the aforementioned borrowing situations:
:{| class="wikitable sortable" ! gloss !! Taruma !! Damana (Chibchan) !! Katukina !! Wapishana (Arawakan) !Mawayana (Arawakan)!! Arikapu !! Proto-Tupian !! Proto-Arawan !! Proto-Jivaroan !! Proto-Cariban !! Mura !! Proto-Tucanoan |- | father || aide || ade || - || - | -|| - || - || - || - || - || - || - |- | sister || aʧi || asi || - || - | -|| - || - || - || - || - || - || - |- | mouth || kukana || kəka || - || - | -|| - || - || - || - || - || - || - |- | bird || zuri || suri || - || - | -|| - || - || - || - || - || - || - |- | snake || báhũ || - || paɡo || - | -|| - || - || - || - || - || - || - |- | wood || u || - || -ʔu || - | -|| - || - || - || - || - || - || - |- | tick || piʤíʤi || - || piːʧiN || - | -|| - || - || - || - || - || - || - |- | tobacco || suma || - || uːba || suuma | -|| - || - || - || - || - || - || - |- | bow || kobara || - || - || sumara | -|| - || - || - || - || - || - || - |- | star || wire || - || - || wiiʐi | -|| - || - || - || - || - || - || - |- | go || maku || - || - || makʰu-n | -|| - || - || - || *maku 'leg' || - || - || - |- | monkey || rumi || - || - || ruumi | -|| - || - || - || - || - || - || - |- | worm || pararu || - || - || pʰaʐaru | -|| - || - || - || - || - || - || - |- | egg || dani || - || - || ʤani | -|| - || - || - || - || - || - || - |- | chest || duku || - || - || ɗukʰuri | -|| - || - || - || - || - || - || - |- | flea || kuwaba || - || - || kʰuwaiɓa | -|| - || - || - || - || - || - || - |- |bottle
| pateli |
|---|
| - |
| pater |
| - |
| - |
| - |
| - |
| - |
| - |
| - |
| - |
| - |
| howler monkey |
| rumi |
| - |
| - |
| rumi |
| - |
| - |
| - |
| - |
| - |
| - |
| - |
| - |
| - |
| calabash |
| gŏlie |
| - |
| - |
| - |
| kawalie |
| | | | | | | |- | caiman || hiri || - || - || - | -|| uhiri || - || - || - || - || - || - |- | deer || konia || - || - || - | -|| kudi || - || - || - || - || - || - |- | dance (v.) || kabihwi || - || - || - | -|| kəwi || - || - || - || - || - || - |- | eat || ko || - || - || - | -|| - || *kˀu || - || - || - || - || - |- | path || afe || - || - || - | -|| - || *ape || - || - || - || - || - |- | arrow || kupa || - || - || - | -|| - || *ekʷˀɨp || - || - || - || - || - |- | salt || wuka || - || - || - | -|| - || *wukɨt || - || - || - || - || - |- | deer || hiʧi || - || - || - | -|| - || *ɨʧɨ || - || - || - || - || - |- | axe || bade || - || - || - | -|| - || - || *bari || - || - || - || - |- | wild dog|| hi || - || - || - | -|| - || - || *-hi || - || - || - || - |- | forest || nukuda || - || - || - | -|| - || - || *nuku 'mountain' || - || - || - || - |- | peccary || baki 'tapir' || - || - || - | -|| - || - || - || *paki || *pakira || - || - |- | leaf || ʤuka || - || - || - | -|| - || - || - || *nuka || - || - || - |- | sweet-potato || aɸi || - || - || - | -|| - || - || - || - || *napi || - || *jãpi |- | canoe || kanawa || - || - || - | -|| - || - || - || - || *kanawa || - || - |- | hand || aɸũ || - || - || - | -|| - || - || - || - || *apô 'arm' || - || - |- | earth || dudu || - || - || - | -|| - || - || - || - || *nono || - || - |- | poison || kʷima || - || - || - | -|| - || - || - || - || *kuma || - || - |- | fire || hʷa || - || - || - | -|| - || - || - || - || - || hũai || - |- | breast || iwa || - || - || - | -|| - || - || - || - || - || iiwe || - |- | mountain || uwai || - || - || - | -|| - || - || - || - || - || uwe 'forest' || - |- | foot || apa || - || - || - | -|| - || - || - || - || - || apai || - |- | tongue || njebena || - || - || - | -|| - || - || - || - || - || - || *tʲʔeme |- | water || dja || - || - || - | -|| - || - || - || - || - || - || *tʲʔia 'river' |- | three || wikʲã || - || - || - | -|| - || - || - || - || - || - || *ɨtˀia |- | woman || ɡumi- || - || - || - | -|| - || - || - || - || - || - || *tʔõmi- |}
Similarities with Chibchan (especially with the Magdalena and Dorasque-Changena subgroups) may be due to the former presence of Chibchan speakers in the Northeast Amazons. Similarities with Tucanoan suggest that Taruma had originated in the Caquetá basin.
Phonology
Consonants
::data[format=table title="Taruma consonants"]
| Bilabial | Alveolar | Retroflex | Palatal | Velar | Glottal | voiceless | voiced | voiceless | voiced | voiceless | voiced | Nasal | Plosive | plain | lab. | Fricative | plain | lab. | Tap |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| m | n | ||||||||||||||||||
| p | b | t | d | k | g | ʔ | |||||||||||||
| kʷ | gʷ | ||||||||||||||||||
| s | ʐ | ɕ | h | ||||||||||||||||
| ɸʷ | |||||||||||||||||||
| ɾ | |||||||||||||||||||
| :: |
Vowels
::data[format=table title="Taruma vowels"]
| Front | Central | Back | plain | nasalized | plain | nasalized | plain | nasalized | Close | Mid | Open |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| i | ĩ | ɨ | ɨ̃ | ||||||||
| o | õ | ||||||||||
| a | ã | ||||||||||
| :: |
Vocabulary
Loukotka (1968) lists the following basic vocabulary items.
:{| class="wikitable" ! gloss !! Taruma |- | one || oshiwai |- | two || dzyowa |- | three || mikyahahi |- | head || a-dam |- | eye || a-tsi |- | man || gika |- | water || za |- | fire || fwa |- | sun || hwa |- | jaguar || dun |- | house || duiya |}
For a list of Taruma words from Jolkesky (2016), see the corresponding Portuguese article.
Notes
References
- Eithne B. Carlin (2011) "Nested Identities in the Southern Guyana Surinam Corner". In Hornborg & Hill (eds.) Ethnicity in Ancient Amazonia.
- Eithne B. Carlin (2006) "Feeling the Need: The Borrowing of Cariban Functional Categories into Mawayana (Arawak)". In Aikhenvald & Dixon (eds.) Grammars in Contact: A Cross-Linguistic Typology, pp. 313–332. Oxford University Press.
References
- Serke, Anna K.. (2022). "A description of Taruma phonology". Universitat Leiden.
- "Taruma".
- Eithne Carlin. (2006). "Feeling the need". Oxford University Press.
- "Indianen, Inheemsen".
- (1994). "Atlas of the world's languages". Routledge.
- "Language history in South America: What we know and how to know more".
- Campbell, Lyle. (2012). "The Indigenous Languages of South America". De Gruyter Mouton.
- Campbell, Lyle. 2018. ''Language Isolates''. New York: Routledge.
- "Marora Naawa Village".
- Hammarström, Harald. (September 2015). "Ethnologue 16/17/18th editions: A comprehensive review: Online appendices". Language.
- Jolkesky, Marcelo Pinho de Valhery. (2016). "Estudo arqueo-ecolinguístico das terras tropicais sul-americanas". University of Brasília.
- Loukotka, Čestmír. (1949). "La Langue Taruma". Journal de la Société des américanistes.
- Bredero, Robin D.. (December 2021). "Retracing the footsteps of the Taruma people". [[Wageningen University & Research]].
- Loukotka, Čestmír. (1968). "Classification of South American Indian languages". UCLA Latin American Center.
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