Secular morality

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Aspect of philosophy

title: "Secular morality" type: doc version: 1 created: 2026-02-28 author: "Wikipedia contributors" status: active scope: public tags: ["morality", "secular-ethics"] description: "Aspect of philosophy" topic_path: "philosophy" source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secular_morality" license: "CC BY-SA 4.0" wikipedia_page_id: 0 wikipedia_revision_id: 0

::summary Aspect of philosophy ::

Secular morality is the aspect of philosophy that deals with morality outside of religious traditions. Modern examples include humanism, freethinking, and most versions of consequentialism. Additional philosophies with ancient roots include those such as skepticism and virtue ethics. Greg M. Epstein also states that, "much of ancient Far Eastern thought is deeply concerned with human goodness without placing much if any stock in the importance of gods or spirits." |title= Good Without God: What a Billion Nonreligious People Do Believe |last= Epstein |first= Greg M. |year= 2010 |publisher= HarperCollins |location= New York |isbn= 978-0-06-167011-4 |url= https://archive.org/details/goodwithoutgodwh00epst | last = Lal | first = Mohan | title = Encyclopaedia of Indian Literature | publisher = Sahitya Akademi | volume = V | date = 1992 | location = New Delhi | pages = 4333–4334 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=KnPoYxrRfc0C&q=Manakkudavar&pg=PA4333 | isbn = 81-260-1221-8 | last = Ramasamy | first = V. | title = On Translating Tirukkural | publisher = International Institute of Tamil Studies | edition = First | date = 2001 | location = Chennai

A variety of positions are apparent regarding the relationship between religion and morality. Some believe that religion is necessary as a guide to a moral life. According to some, this idea has been with us for nearly 2,000 years. According to others, the idea goes back as far as 4,000 years, with the ancient Egyptians' 42 Principles of Ma'at.{{cite web |last1=Richard |first1=Lottie |title=42 Principles Of God Maat 2000 Years Before Ten Commandments |url=http://www.liberalamerica.org/2015/05/15/42-principles-of-god-maat-2000-years-before-ten-commandments/ |website=Liberal America |date=15 May 2015 |accessdate=13 October 2015}}

Others eschew the idea that religion is required to provide a guide to right and wrong behavior. The Westminster Dictionary of Christian Ethics however states that religion and morality "are to be defined differently and have no definitional connections with each other". Some believe that religions provide poor guides to moral behavior. Various commentators, such as Richard Dawkins (The God Delusion), Sam Harris (The End of Faith) and Christopher Hitchens (God Is Not Great) are among those who have asserted this view.

Secular moral frameworks

Consequentialism

Main article: Consequentialism

"Consequentialists", as described by Peter Singer, "start not with moral rules, but with goals. They assess actions by the extent to which they further those goals." |title= Practical Ethics |edition= Second |last= Singer |first= Peter |year= 2010 |publisher= Cambridge University Press |location= New York |isbn= 978-0-521-43971-8 |url= https://archive.org/details/practicalethics00sing

Freethought

Main article: Freethought

Freethought is a philosophical viewpoint that holds that opinions should be formed on the basis of science, logic, and reason, and should not be influenced by authority, tradition, or other dogmas. Freethinkers strive to build their opinions on the basis of facts, scientific inquiry, and logical principles, independent of any logical fallacies or intellectually limiting effects of authority, confirmation bias, cognitive bias, conventional wisdom, popular culture, prejudice, sectarianism, tradition, urban legend, and all other dogmas.

Secular humanism

Main article: Secular humanism

Secular humanism focuses on the way human beings can lead happy and functional lives. It posits that human beings are capable of being ethical and moral without religion or God, it neither assumes humans to be inherently evil or innately good, nor presents humans as "above nature" or superior to it. Rather, the humanist life stance emphasizes the unique responsibility facing humanity and the ethical consequences of human decisions. Fundamental to the concept of secular humanism is the strongly held viewpoint that ideology—be it religious or political—must be thoroughly examined by each individual and not simply accepted or rejected on faith. Along with this, an essential part of secular humanism is a continually adapting search for truth, primarily through science and philosophy.

Positions on religion and morality

The subject of secular morality has been discussed by prominent secular scholars as well as popular culture-based atheist and anti-religious writers. These include Paul Chamberlain's Can We Be Good Without God? (1996), Richard Holloway's Godless Morality: Keeping Religion Out of Ethics (1999), Robert Buckman's Can We Be Good Without God? (2002), Michael Shermer's The Science of Good and Evil (2004), Richard Dawkins's The God Delusion (2006), Christopher Hitchens's God Is Not Great (2007), Greg Epstein's Good Without God: What A Billion Nonreligious People Do Believe (2010), and Sam Harris's The Moral Landscape: How Science Can Determine Human Values (2011).

"Morality does not require religious tenets"

According to Greg Epstein, "the idea that we can't be 'good without God has been with us for nearly 2,000 years.

Friedrich Nietzsche famously declared God is Dead but also warned "When one gives up the Christian faith, one pulls the right to Christian morality out from under one's feet. This morality is by no means self-evident ... Christianity is a system, a whole view of things thought out together. By breaking one main concept out of it, the faith in God, one breaks the whole."

This idea is still present today. "Many today ... argue that religious beliefs are necessary to provide moral guidance and standards of virtuous conduct in an otherwise corrupt, materialistic, and degenerate world." | last = Dixon | first = Thomas | title = Science and Religion: A Very Short Introduction | publisher = Oxford University Press | year = 2008 | location = Oxford | isbn = 978-0-19-929551-7 |last=Lewis|first=C.S.|author-link=C. S. Lewis |title=Mere Christianity |publisher=HarperCollins |year=2001 |title-link=Mere Christianity}} In the same vein, Christian theologian Ron Rhodes has remarked that "it is impossible to distinguish evil from good unless one has an infinite reference point which is absolutely good." Peter Singer states that, "Traditionally, the more important link between religion and ethics was that religion was thought to provide a reason for doing what is right, the reason being that those who are virtuous will be rewarded by an eternity of bliss while the rest roast in hell."

Proponents of theism argue that without a God or gods it is impossible to justify moral behavior on metaphysical grounds and thus to make a coherent case for abiding by moral standards. C. S. Lewis makes such an argument in Mere Christianity. Peter Robinson, a political author and commentator with Stanford's Hoover Institution, has commented that, if an inner moral conscience is just another adaptive or evolved feeling in the human mind like simple emotional urges, then no inherent reason exists to consider morality as over and above other urges. According to Thomas Dixon, "Religions certainly do provide a framework within which people can learn the difference between right and wrong."

"Morality does not rely on religion"

Various commentators have stated that morality does not require religion as a guide. The Westminster Dictionary of Christian Ethics states that, "it is not hard to imagine a society of people that has no religion but has a morality, as well as a legal system, just because it says that people cannot live together without rules against killing, etc., and that it is not desirable for these all to be legally enforced. There have also certainly been people who have had a morality but no religious beliefs." | editor1-last = Childress | editor1-first = James F. | editor2-last = Macquarrie| editor2-first = John | title = The Westminster Dictionary of Christian Ethics | publisher = The Westminster Press | year = 1986 | location = Philadelphia | isbn = 0-664-20940-8}} Bernard Williams, an English philosopher, stated that the secular "utilitarian outlook"—a popular ethical position wherein the morally right action is defined as that action which effects the greatest amount of happiness or pleasure for the greatest number of people—is "non-transcendental, and makes no appeal outside human life, in particular not to religious considerations." |title= Morality |author-link1=Bernard Williams |last= Williams|first= Bernard |year= 1972 |publisher= Cambridge University Press |location= Cambridge |isbn= 0-521-45729-7

Socrates' "Euthyphro dilemma" is often considered one of the earliest refutations of the idea that morality requires religion. This line of reasoning is described by Peter Singer:

Greg Epstein, a Humanist chaplain at Harvard University, dismisses the question of whether God is needed to be good "because that question does not need to be answered—it needs to be rejected outright," adding, "To suggest that one can't be good without belief in God is not just an opinion ... it is a prejudice. It may even be discrimination." He also states that "Morality is more than possible without God, it is entirely independent of him. That means atheists are not only more than capable of leading moral lives, they may even be able to lead more moral lives than religious believers who confuse divine law and punishment with right and wrong.

Popular atheist author and Vanity Fair writer Christopher Hitchens remarked on the program Uncommon Knowledge:

::figure[src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8d/Cambridge_Humanists,_July_2010.JPG" caption="Daniel Dennett says it is a "pernicious" myth that religion or God are needed for people to fulfill their desires to be good. However, he offers that secular and humanist groups are still learning how to organize effectively."] ::

Philosopher Daniel Dennett says that secular organizations need to learn more 'marketing' lessons from religion—and from effective secular organizations like the TED conferences. This is partly because Dennett says that the idea that people need God to be morally good is an extremely harmful, yet popular myth. He believes it is a falsehood that persists because churches are currently much better at organizing people to do morally good work. In Dennett's words: |url=http://www.pointofinquiry.org/daniel_dennett_the_scientific_study_of_religion/ |first=Daniel|last=Dennett |title=The Scientific Study of Religion |publisher=Point of Inquiry |date=December 12, 2011

"Religion is a poor moral guide"

Popular atheist author and biologist Richard Dawkins, writing in The God Delusion, has stated that religious people have committed a wide variety of acts and held certain beliefs through history that are considered today to be morally repugnant. He has stated that Adolf Hitler and the Nazis held broadly Christian religious beliefs that inspired the Holocaust on account of antisemitic Christian doctrine, that Christians have traditionally imposed unfair restrictions on the legal and civil rights of women, and that Christians have condoned slavery of some form or description throughout most of Christianity's history. Dawkins insists that, since Jewish and Christian interpretations of the Bible have changed over the span of history so that what was formerly seen as permissible is now seen as impermissible, it is intellectually dishonest for them to believe theism provides an absolute moral foundation apart from secular intuition. In addition, he argued that since Christians and other religious groups do not acknowledge the binding authority of all parts of their holy texts (e.g., the books of Exodus and Leviticus state that those who work on the Sabbath and those caught performing acts of homosexuality, respectively, were to be put to death), they are already capable of distinguishing "right" from "wrong". |last=Dawkins|first=Richard|author-link=Richard Dawkins |title=The God Delusion |year=2006 |publisher=Bantam Books |isbn=978-0-618-68000-9 |title-link=The God Delusion}}

The Humanist Rabbi Greg M. Epstein notes a theme similar to that in Dostoyevsky's novel The Brothers Karamazov: Greg notes, "If you're going to do something naughty, you're going to do it, and all the theology in the world isn't going to stop you." For instance the apologies by Christians who have "sinned" (such as Bill Clinton and Jimmy Swaggart) "must embolden some who take enormous risks for the thrill of a little immoral behavior: their Lord will forgive them, if they only ask nicely enough when—or if—they are eventually caught." In the novel, the well-known paraphrased passage being, "If God is dead, all is permitted." In the novel, the character Ivan's internal conflict shows that that dictum is in and of itself a paradoxical moral justification:

Some surveys and sociological literature suggest that theists do no better than their secular counterparts in the percentage adhering to widely held moral standards (e.g., lying, theft and sexual infidelity).

Other views

Some non-religious nihilistic and existentialist thinkers have affirmed the prominent theistic position that the existence of the personal God of theism is linked to the existence of an objective moral standard, asserting that questions of right and wrong inherently have no meaning and, thus, any notions of morality are nothing but an anthropogenic fantasy. Agnostic author and Absurdist philosopher Albert Camus discussed the issue of what he saw as the universe's indifference towards humankind and the meaninglessness of life in his prominent novel The Stranger, in which the protagonist accepts death via execution without sadness or feelings of injustice. In his philosophical work, The Myth of Sisyphus, Camus argues that human beings must choose to live defiantly in spite of their longing for purpose or direction and the apparent lack of evidence for God or moral imperatives. The atheistic existentialist philosopher Jean-Paul Sartre proposed that the individual must create his own essence and therefore must freely and independently create his own subjective moral standards by which to live.

Gaudiya Vaishnavism philosopher Bhaktivinoda Thakura says in his book, Tattva Viveka (translated from Bengali by Kusakratha das):

text="How the preacher of the philosophy of unselfish material pleasure induces his followers to act morally in the world is not easily understood. Pushed by their own selfish desires, people may act morally for some time, but when they think it over, they will eventually sin. They will say to themselves: 'O my brother, don't stay away from sense pleasures. Enjoy sense pleasures as you like, as long as others do not know of them. Why not? I do not think the world will collapse because of them. There is no God, an all-seeing God who gives to us the results of our actions. What have you to fear? Just be a little careful, so no one will know. If they learn of it, then you will lose your good reputation, and perhaps the government or bad people will make trouble for you. If that happens neither you nor others will be happy.' Know for certain that if the hearts of the preachers of atheistic morality were examined, these thoughts would be found."

Evidential findings

Cases can be seen in nature of animals exhibiting behavior that might classify as "moral" without religious directives to guide them. These include "detailed studies of the complex systems of altruism and cooperation that operate among social insects" and "the posting of altruistic sentinels by some species of bird and mammal, who risk their own lives to warn the rest of the group of imminent danger."

Greg Epstein states that "sociologists have recently begun to pay more attention to the fact that some of the world's most secular countries, such as those in Scandinavia, are among the least violent, best educated, and most likely to care for the poor". |first=Phil|last=Zuckerman |year=2008 |title=Society Without God: What the Least Religious Nations Can Tell Us About Contentment |location=New York |publisher=New York University Press

In April 2012, the results of a study which tested their subjects' pro-social sentiments were published in the Social Psychological and Personality Science journal in which non-religious people had higher scores showing that they were more inclined to show generosity in random acts of kindness, such as lending their possessions and offering a seat on a crowded bus or train. Religious people also had lower scores when it came to seeing how much compassion motivated participants to be charitable in other ways, such as in giving money or food to a homeless person and to non-believers.Laura R. Saslow, Robb Willer, Matthew Feinberg, Paul K. Piff, Katharine Clark, Dacher Keltner and Sarina R. Saturn My Brother's Keeper? Compassion Predicts Generosity More Among Less Religious Individuals But, global research done by Gallup between 2006 and 2008 on people from 145 countries give the opposite results. According to research, adherents of all the major world religions who attended religious services in the past week got higher rates of generosity such as donating money, volunteering, and helping a stranger than do their coreligionists who did not attend services (non-attenders). For the people who were nonreligious, but said that they attended religious services in the past week exhibited more generous behaviors than those who did not. Another global study by Gallup showed that highly religious people are more likely to help others in terms of donating money, volunteering, and helping strangers despite having, on average, lower incomes than those who are less religious or nonreligious who reported higher incomes. In the research, it is said that these helping behaviors cannot be conclusively attributed to the direct influence of religiosity, but that it is intuitive that religious people are more likely to engage in helping behaviors because of values promoted by religions such as selflessness and generosity.

A number of studies have been conducted on the empirics of morality in various countries, and the overall relationship between faith and crime is unclear.{{refn|group=lower-alpha|Some studies appear to show positive links in the relationship between religiosity and moral behavior—for example, surveys suggesting a positive connection between faith and altruism. Modern research in criminology also suggests an inverse relationship between religion and crime, with some studies establishing this connection. For example:

  • Chard-Wierschem, D. (1998). In pursuit of the "true" relationship: A longitudinal study of the effects of religiosity on delinquency and substance abuse. Ann Arbor, MI: UMI Dissertation.
  • A meta-analysis of 60 studies on religion and crime concluded, "religious behaviors and beliefs exert a moderate deterrent effect on individuals' criminal behavior".}} A 2001 review of studies on this topic found "The existing evidence surrounding the effect of religion on crime is varied, contested, and inconclusive, and currently no persuasive answer exists as to the empirical relationship between religion and crime." Phil Zuckerman's 2008 book, Society without God, notes that Denmark and Sweden, "which are probably the least religious countries in the world, and possibly in the history of the world", enjoy "among the lowest violent crime rates in the world [and] the lowest levels of corruption in the world". Dozens of studies have been conducted on this topic since the twentieth century. A 2005 study by Gregory S. Paul published in the Journal of Religion and Society stated that, "In general, higher rates of belief in and worship of a creator correlate with higher rates of homicide, juvenile and early adult mortality, STD infection rates, teen pregnancy, and abortion in the prosperous democracies," and "In all secular developing democracies a centuries long-term trend has seen homicide rates drop to historical lows" with the exceptions being the United States (with a high religiosity level) and "theistic" Portugal. In a response, Gary Jensen builds on and refines Paul's study. His conclusion is that a "complex relationship" exists between religiosity and homicide "with some dimensions of religiosity encouraging homicide and other dimensions discouraging it".

Notes

References

References

  1. George Uglow Pope. (1886). "The Sacred Kurral of Tiruvalluva Nayanar". Asian Educational Services.
  2. {{rp
  3. {{rp. 3 [[Epicureanism]] offers a pleasure-based consequential theory of ethics, and its founder says "we think empirically concerning the actions based on the results observed from any course of action."Reasonings About Epicurus’ On Nature (Book 18): Against the Use of Empty Words. https://societyofepicurus.com/reasonings-about-epicurus-on-nature-book-18-against-the-use-of-empty-words
  4. (1889). "Twilight of the Idols, or, How to Philosophize with a Hammer".
  5. Ron Rhodes. "Strategies for Dialoguing with Atheists". earthlink.net/~ronrhodes/ Reasoning from the Scriptures Ministries.
  6. (August 23, 2007). "Hitchens—The Morals of an Atheist". [[Uncommon Knowledge]].
  7. Biblos.com. (2004–2011). "Exodus 31:15". Biblos.com.
  8. Biblos.com. (2004–2011). "Leviticus 20:13". Biblos.com.
  9. (1976). "The Brothers Karamazov : the Constance Garnett translation".
  10. [https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2012/04/120430140035.htm Highly Religious People Are Less Motivated by Compassion Than Are Non-Believers] by Science Daily
  11. (4 September 2009). "Religious Attendance Relates to Generosity Worldwide". Gallup.
  12. (8 October 2008). "Worldwide, Highly Religious More Likely to Help Others". Gallup.
  13. (2005). "Religiosity, Religious Participation, and Negative Prison Behaviors". Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion.
  14. (2005). "Prosocial Behavior and Religion: New Evidence Based on Projective Measures and Peer Ratings". Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion.
  15. e.g. [http://www.ropercenter.uconn.edu/data_access/data/datasets/social_capital_community_survey.html a survey] {{webarchive. link. (2007-10-08 by [[Robert D. Putnam). Robert Putnam]] showing that membership of religious groups was positively correlated with membership of voluntary organisations
  16. (2007). "Religiosity and Desistance From Drug Use". Criminal Justice and Behavior.
  17. (2001). "If you love me, keep my commandments":A meta-analysis of the effect of religion on crime". Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency.
  18. (February 2001). ""If You Love Me, Keep My Commandments": A Meta-analysis of the Effect of Religion on Crime". Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency.
  19. Zuckerman, Phil. (October 2008). "Society Without God: What the Least Religious Nations Can Tell Us about Contentment". New York University Press.
  20. Paul, Gregory S.. (2005). "Cross-National Correlations of Quantifiable Societal Health with Popular Religiosity and Secularism in the Prosperous Democracies: A First Look". Journal of Religion and Society.
  21. Paul, Gregory S.. (2005). "Cross-National Correlations of Quantifiable Societal Health with Popular Religiosity and Secularism in the Prosperous Democracies: A First Look". Journal of Religion and Society.
  22. Paul, Gregory S.. (2005). "Cross-National Correlations of Quantifiable Societal Health with Popular Religiosity and Secularism in the Prosperous Democracies: A First Look". Journal of Religion and Society.
  23. Paul, Gregory S.. (2005). "Cross-National Correlations of Quantifiable Societal Health with Popular Religiosity and Secularism in the Prosperous Democracies: A First Look". Journal of Religion and Society.
  24. Gerson Moreno-Riaño. (2006). "Religiosity, Secularism, and Social Health". Journal of Religion and Society.
  25. "Journal of Religion and Society".

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