Protectorate

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Concept in international relations

title: "Protectorate" type: doc version: 1 created: 2026-02-28 author: "Wikipedia contributors" status: active scope: public tags: ["client-state", "colonialism", "constitutional-state-types"] description: "Concept in international relations" topic_path: "general/client-state" source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protectorate" license: "CC BY-SA 4.0" wikipedia_page_id: 0 wikipedia_revision_id: 0

::summary Concept in international relations ::

A protectorate, in the context of international relations, is a state or territory that is under protection by another state for defence against aggression and other violations of law. It is a dependent territory that enjoys autonomy over most of its internal affairs, while still recognizing the suzerainty of a more powerful sovereign state without being a possession. In exchange, the protectorate usually accepts specified obligations depending on the terms of their arrangement. Protectorates can also be a federation of multiple dependent states, such as with the Aden protectorate.

A protectorate is different from a colony as it has local rulers, is not directly possessed, and rarely experiences colonization by the suzerain state. A state that is under the protection of another state while retaining its International legal personality is called a "protected state", not a protectorate.

History

Protectorates are one of the oldest features of international relations, dating back to the Roman Empire. Civitates foederatae were cities that were subordinate to Rome for their foreign relations. In the Middle Ages, Andorra was a protectorate of France and Spain. Modern protectorate concepts were devised in the nineteenth century.

Typology

Foreign relations

In practice, a protectorate often has direct foreign relations only with the protector state, and transfers the management of all its more important international affairs to the latter. Similarly, the protectorate rarely takes military action on its own but relies on the protector for its defence. This is distinct from annexation, in that the protector has no formal power to control the internal affairs of the protectorate.

Protectorates differ from League of Nations mandates and their successors, United Nations trust territories, whose administration is supervised, in varying degrees, by the international community. A protectorate formally enters into the protection through a bilateral agreement with the protector, while international mandates are stewarded by the world community-representing body, with or without a de facto administering power.

Protected state

A protected state has a form of protection where it continues to retain an "international personality" and enjoys an agreed amount of independence in conducting its foreign policy.: "First, protected states are entities which still have substantial authority in their internal affairs, retain some control over their foreign policy, and establish their relation to the protecting state on a treaty or another legal instrument. Protected states still have qualifications of statehood."

For political and pragmatic reasons, the protection relationship is not usually advertised, but described with euphemisms such as "an independent state with special treaty relations" with the protecting state. A protected state appears on world maps just as any other independent state.

International administration of a state can also be regarded as an internationalized form of protection, where the protector is an international organisation rather than a state.

Colonial protection

Multiple regions—such as the Colony and Protectorate of Nigeria, the Colony and Protectorate of Lagos, and similar—were subjects of colonial protection. Conditions of protection are generally much less generous for areas of colonial protection. The protectorate was often reduced to a de facto condition similar to a colony, but with the pre-existing native state continuing as the agent of indirect rule. Occasionally, a protectorate was established by another form of indirect rule: a chartered company, which becomes a de facto state in its European home state (but geographically overseas), allowed to be an independent country with its own foreign policy and generally its own armed forces.

In fact, protectorates were often declared despite no agreement being duly entered into by the state supposedly being protected, or only agreed to by a party of dubious authority in those states. Colonial protectors frequently decided to reshuffle several protectorates into a new, artificial unit without consulting the protectorates, without being mindful of the theoretical duty of a protector to help maintain a protectorate's status and integrity. The Berlin agreement of February 26, 1885, allowed European colonial powers to establish protectorates in Black Africa (the last region to be divided among them) by diplomatic notification, even without actual possession on the ground. This aspect of history is referred to as the Scramble for Africa. A similar case is the formal use of such terms as colony and protectorate for an amalgamation—convenient only for the colonizer or protector—of adjacent territories, over which it held (de facto) sway by protective or "raw" colonial power.

Amical protection

In amical protection—as in Britain's relationship with the United States of the Ionian Islands from 1815 to 1864—the terms are often very favourable for the protectorate. The political interest of the protector is frequently moral (a matter of accepted moral obligation, prestige, ideology, internal popularity, or of dynastic, historical, or ethnocultural ties). The protector's interest may be in countering a rival or enemy power—such as preventing the rival from obtaining or maintaining control of areas of strategic importance. This may involve a very weak protectorate surrendering control of its external relations but may not constitute any real sacrifice, as the protectorate may not have been able to have a similar use of them without the protector's strength.

The great powers frequently extended amical protection to other Christian (generally European) states, and to states of no significant importance. After 1815, non-Christian states (such as the Chinese Qing dynasty) also provided amical protection to other, much weaker states.

In modern times, a form of amical protection can be seen as an important or defining feature of microstates. According to the definition proposed by Dumienski (2014): "microstates are modern protected states, i.e. sovereign states that have been able to unilaterally depute certain attributes of sovereignty to larger powers in exchange for benign protection of their political and economic viability against their geographic or demographic constraints".

List of protectorates

Brazil

Imperial protectorates

Republican protectorates

British Empire

Main article: British protectorate

List of former British protectorates

Americas
Arab world
Asia
Europe
Sub-Saharan Africa
Oceania
  • No flag.svg British New Guinea (1884–1888)
  • [[File:Flag of the Solomon Islands (1906–1947).svg|24x24px]] British Solomon Islands (1893–1978)
  • [[File:Flag of the Cook Islands Federation.svg|24x24px]] Cook Islands (1888–1901)
  • Gilbert and Ellice Islands (1892–1916)
  • No flag.svg Niue (1900–1901)
  • No flag.svg Tokelau (1877–1947)

List of former British protected states

As protected states, the following states were never officially part of the British Empire and retained near-total control over internal affairs; however, the British controlled their foreign policy. Their status was rarely advertised while it was in effect, it becoming clear only after it was lifted.

  • Emirate of Afghanistan (1879–1919)
  • Brunei (1888–1984)
  • Bhutan (1910–1947)
  • Flag of the Emirate of Nejd and Hasa.svg Emirate of Nejd (1915-1921)
  • Flag of the Sultanate of Nejd.svg Sultanate of Nejd (1921-1926)
  • Flag of the Kingdom of Hejaz and Nejd.svg Kingdom of Hejaz and Nejd (1926-1927)
  • Kingdom of Nepal (1816–1923)
  • Kingdom of Egypt (1922–1936)
  • Malaya Federation of Malaya (1948–1957)
    • Federated Malay States (1895–1946)
      • Negeri Sembilan (1888–1895)
        • [[File:Flag of Sungei Ujong.svg|24x24px]] Sungai Ujong (1874–1888)
        • No flag.svg Jelebu (1886–1895)
      • Pahang (1888–1895)
      • Perak (1874–1895)
      • Selangor (1874–1895)
    • No flag.svg Unfederated Malay States (1904/09–1946)
      • Johor (1914–1946)
        • Johor Muar (1897–1909)
      • Kedah (1909–1946)
      • Kelantan (1909–1946)
      • Perlis (1909–1946)
      • Terengganu (1919–1946)
  • Tonga (1900–1970)
  • No flag.svg British Residency of the Persian Gulf (1822–1971); headquarters based at Bushehr, Persia
    • [[File:State flag of Persia (1907–1933).svg|23px]] Persia (1919–1921)
    • [[File:Flag of Bahrain (1820–1932).svg|23px]][[File:Flag of Bahrain (1932–1972).svg|23px]] Bahrain (1783–1971)
    • [[File:Flag of Kuwait 1940-1961.png|23px]] Sheikhdom of Kuwait (1899–1961)
    • [[File:Flag of Qatar (1936-1949).svg|24px|border]] Qatar (1916–1971)
    • Trucial States; precursor state of the UAE (1820–1971)
      • [[File:Flag of Abu Dhabi.svg|24px]] Abu Dhabi (1820–1971)
      • [[File:Flag of Ajman.svg|24px]] Ajman (1820–1971)
      • [[File:Flag of Dubai.svg|24px]] Dubai (1835–1971)
      • [[File:Flag of Fujairah (1952–1972).svg|24px]] Fujairah (1952–1971)
      • [[File:Flag of Sharjah.svg|24px]] Ras Al Khaimah (1820–1971)
      • [[File:Flag of Sharjah.svg|24px]] Sharjah (1820–1971)
        • [[File:Flag of Sharjah.svg|24px]] Kalba (1936–1951)
      • [[File:Flag of Umm al-Qaiwain.svg|24px]] Umm al-Qaiwain (1820–1971)
    • Muscat and Oman (1892–1951) (informal)
  • Kingdom of Sarawak (1888–1946)
  • [[File:Flag of the Maldives 1953.svg|24x24px]] Sultanate of Maldives (1948-1965)
  • No flag.svg Swaziland (1967–1968)

China

Dutch Empire

Various sultanates in the Dutch East Indies (present day Indonesia):

[[Sumatra]]

  • Tarumon Kingdom (1830–1946)
  • Flag of Sultanate of Langkat.svg Langkat Sultanate (26 October 1869 – December 1945)
  • Flag of the Sultanate of Deli.svg Deli Sultanate (22 August 1862 – December 1945)
  • Flag of Asahan.svg Asahan Sultanate (27 September 1865 – December 1945)
  • Bila (1864–1946)
  • Flag of Kota Pinang.png Tasik (Kota Pinang) (1865 – December 1945)
  • Flag of Sultanate of Siak Sri Indrapura.svg Siak Sultanate (1 February 1858 – 1946)
  • Sungai Taras (Kampong Raja) (1864–1916)
  • Panei (1864–1946)
  • Royal Malay Banner (Yellow).svg Sultanate of Serdang (1865 – December 1945)
  • Indragiri Sultanate (1838 – September 1945)
  • Sultanate of Jambi Flag.png Jambi Sultanate (1833–1899)
  • Kuala (1886–1946)
  • Bendera Kesultanan Pelalawan.png Pelalawan (1859 – November 1945)
  • Siantar (1904–1946)
  • Tanah Jawa (1904–1946)

[[Riau Archipelago]]

  • Flag of Riau-Lingga Sultanate.svg Lingga-Riau (1819–1911)

[[Java]]

[[Bali]]

[[Lombok]]

  • Flag of the Sultanate of Lombok.svg Lombok (1843–1894)
  • Bendera Kesultanan Sumbawa.png Sumbawa (1908–c. 1948)
  • Bendera Kesultanan Bima.png Bima (8 December 1669 – 1949)
  • Dompu (1905–1942)

[[Flores]] and Solor

  • Larantuka (1859–1904)
  • Tanah Kuna Lima (1917–1924)
  • Ndona (1917–1924)
  • Sikka (1879–c. 1947)

[[Kalimantan|Borneo]]

[[Sulawesi|Celebes]]

  • Flag of the Sultanate of Gowa.svg Gowa Sultanate (1669–1906; 1936–1949)
  • Flag of Bone.png Bone Sultanate (1669–1905)
  • Bolaang Mongonduw (1825–c. 1949)
  • Laiwui (1858–c. 1949)
  • Macangnge Flag of Luwu.jpg Luwu (1861–c. 1949)
  • Soppeng (1860–c. 1949)
  • Butung (1824–c. 1949)
  • Siau (1680–c. 1949)
  • Banggai (1907–c. 1949)
  • Tallo (1668–1780)
  • Wajo (1860–c. 1949)
  • Tabukan (1677–c. 1949)

[[Ajatappareng|Ajattappareng]] Confederacy (1905–c. 1949)

  • Malusetasi
  • Rapang
  • Swaito (union of Sawito and Alita, 1908)
  • Sidenreng
  • Supa

Mabbatupappeng Confederacy (1906–c. 1949)

  • Barru
  • Soppengriaja (union of Balusu, Kiru, Kamiri, 1906)
  • Tanette

Mandar Confederacy (1906–c. 1949)

  • Balangnipa
  • Binuang
  • Cenrana
  • Majene
  • Mamuju
  • Pambauang
  • Tapalang

Massenrempulu Confederacy (1905–c. 1949)

[[Maluku Islands|Moluccas]]

  • Flag of the Ternate Sultanate.png Ternate Sultanate (12 October 1676 – 1949)
  • Bendera Sultan Bacan.svg Bacan Sultanate (1667–1949)
  • Flag of the Sultanate of Tidore.pngTidore (1657–c.1949)

[[West Timor]] and Alor

  • Amanatun (1749–c. 1949)
  • Amanuban (1749–c. 1949)
  • Amarasi (1749–c. 1949)
  • Amfoan (1683–c. 1949)
  • Beboki (1756–c. 1949)
  • Belu (1756–c.1949)
  • Insana (1756–c.1949)
  • Sonbai Besar (1756–1906)
  • Sonbai Kecil (1659–1917)
  • Roti (Korbafo before 1928) (c. 1750–c.1949)
  • TaEbenu (1688–1917)

[[New Guinea]]

Egypt

France

Africa

"Protection" was the formal legal structure under which French colonial forces expanded in Africa between the 1830s and 1900. Almost every pre-existing state that was later part of French West Africa was placed under protectorate status at some point, although direct rule gradually replaced protectorate agreements. Formal ruling structures, or fictive recreations of them, were largely retained—as with the low-level authority figures in the French Cercles—with leaders appointed and removed by French officials.

  • Benin traditional states:
    • Independent of Royal banner of Béhanzin of Dahomey.svg Danhome, under French protectorate, from 1889
    • Porto-Novo a French protectorate, 23 February 1863 – 2 January 1865. Cotonou a French Protectorate, 19 May 1868. Porto-Novo French protectorate, 14 April 1882.
  • Central African Republic traditional states:
    • French protectorate over Dar al-Kuti (1912 Sultanate suppressed by the French), 12 December 1897
    • French protectorate over the Sultanate of Bangassou, 1894
  • Chad: Baghirmi state 20 September 1897 a French protectorate
  • Côte d'Ivoire: 10 January 1889 French protectorate of Ivory Coast
  • Guinea: 5 August 1849 French protectorate over coastal region; (Riviéres du Sud).
  • Niger, Sultanate of Damagaram (Zinder), 30 July 1899 under French protectorate over the native rulers, titled Sarkin Damagaram or Sultan
  • Senegal: 4 February 1850 First of several French protectorate treaties with local rulers
  • Comoros traditional states:
  • Present Djibouti was originally, from 24 June 1884, the Territory of Obock and Protectorate of Tadjoura (Territoires Français d'Obock, Tadjoura, Dankils et Somalis), a French protectorate recognized by Britain on 9 February 1888, renamed on 20 May 1896 as French Somaliland (Côte Française des Somalis).
  • Mauritania: 12 May 1903 French protectorate; within Mauritania several traditional states:
    • Adrar emirate from 9 January 1909 French protectorate (before Spanish)
    • The Taganit confederation's emirate (founded by Idaw `Ish dynasty), from 1905 under French protectorate.
    • Brakna confederation's emirate
    • Emirate of Trarza: 15 December 1902 placed under French protectorate status.
  • Merchant flag of French Morocco.svg Morocco – most of the sultanate was under French protectorate (30 March 1912 – 7 April 1956) although, in theory, it remained a sovereign state under the Treaty of Fez; this fact was confirmed by the International Court of Justice in 1952.
  • Traditional Madagascar States
  • French protectorate of Tunisia Tunisia (12 May 1881 – 20 March 1956): became a French protectorate by treaty

Asia

::figure[src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8f/1_Sapèque_-Protectorate_of_Tonkin(1905)_02.jpg" caption="1 Sapèque – Protectorate of Tonkin (1905)"] ::

  • French Indochina until 1953/54:
    • Flag of Colonial Annam.svg Annam and Tonkin 6 June 1884
    • Flag of Cambodia under French protection.svg Cambodia 11 August 1863
    • Flag of French Laos.svg Laos 3 October 1893
    • Flag of Central Vietnam (1885-1890).svg Vietnam 6 June 1884

Europe

  • [[File:Coat of arms of the Most Serene Republican Monarchy of Naples.svg|15px]] Neapolitan Republic (1647-1648)
  • North Rhine-Westphalia Rhenish Republic (1923–1924)
  • Saar Protectorate Saar Protectorate (1946–1956), not colonial or amical, but a former part of Germany that would by referendum return to it, in fact a re-edition of a former League of Nations mandate. Most French protectorates were colonial.

Oceania

  • French Polynesia French Polynesia, mainly the Society Islands (several others were immediately annexed). All eventually were annexed by 1889.
    • Flag of the Tahiti Protectorate 1842-1843.svg Tahiti (native king styled Ari`i rahi) becomes a French protectorate, 1842–1880
    • Drapeau de Raiatea (polynésie Française 1880-1897).png Raiatea and Tahaa (after temporary annexation by Tahiti; (title Ari`i) a French protectorate, 1880)
    • Flag of the Kingdom of Mangareva 1832-1843.svg Mangareva (one of the Gambier Islands; ruler title `Akariki) a French protectorate, 16 February 1844 (unratified) and 30 November 1871
  • Flag of Wallis and Futuna.svg Wallis and Futuna:
    • Flag of Uvea.svg Wallis declared to be a French protectorate by King of Uvea and Captain Mallet, 4 November 1842. Officially in a treaty becomes a French protectorate, 5 April 1887.
    • Flag of Sigave.svg Sigave and Flag_of_Alo.svg Alo on the islands of Futuna and Alofi signed a treaty establishing a French protectorate on 16 February 1888.

Germany

::figure[src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b2/5000_Kronen_BM1944.jpg" caption="kronen]]}}'' – [[Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia]] (1939–1945)"] ::

The German Empire used the word Schutzgebiet, literally protectorate, for all of its colonial possessions until they were lost during World War I, regardless of the actual level of government control. Cases involving indirect rule included:

Before and during World War II, Nazi Germany designated the rump of occupied Czechoslovakia and Denmark as protectorates:

India

Italy

  • Al-1918.svg The Albanian Republic (1917–1920) and the Flag of Albania (1939–1943).svg Albanian Kingdom (1939–1943)
  • Monaco Monaco under amical Protectorate of the Kingdom of Sardinia 20 November 1815 to 1860.
  • Ethiopian Pennants.svg Ethiopia : 2 May 1889 Treaty of Wuchale, in the Italian language version, stated that Ethiopia was to become an Italian protectorate, while the Ethiopian Amharic language version merely stated that the Emperor could, if he so chose, go through Italy to conduct foreign affairs. When the differences in the versions came to light, Emperor Menelik II abrogated first the article in question (XVII), and later the whole treaty. The event culminated in the First Italo-Ethiopian War, in which Ethiopia was victorious and defended her sovereignty in 1896.
  • Coat of arms of Italian Libya (1940–1943).svg Libya: on 15 October 1912 Italian protectorate declared over Cirenaica (Cyrenaica) until 17 May 1919.
  • Banaadir calan.gif Benadir Coast in Somalia: 3 August 1889 Italian protectorate (in the northeast; unoccupied until May 1893), until 16 March 1905 when it changed to Italian_Somaliland_COA.svg Italian Somaliland.
    • Majeerteen sultanate flag.jpg Majeerteen Sultanate since 7 April 1889 under Italian protectorate (renewed 7 April 1895), then in 1927 incorporated into the Italian colony.
    • Majeerteen sultanate flag.jpg Sultanate of Hobyo since December 1888 under Italian protectorate (renewed 11 April 1895), then in October 1925 incorporated into the Italian colony (known as Obbia).

Japan

Poland

  • Flag of Feodosia.svg Kaffa (1462–1475)

Portugal

Russia and the Soviet Union

''De facto''

Some sources mention the following territories as de facto Russian protectorates:

Spain

  • Merchant flag of Spanish Morocco.svg Spanish Morocco protectorate from 27 November 1912 until 2 April 1958 (Northern zone until 7 April 1956, Southern zone (Cape Juby) until 2 April 1958).
  • Late_19th_Century_Flag_of_Sulu.svg Sultanate of Sulu (1851–1899)

Turkey and the Ottoman Empire

Main article: Vassal and tributary states of the Ottoman Empire

''De facto''

United Nations

Main article: United Nations protectorate

United States

Contemporary usage

Some agencies of the United States government, such as the Environmental Protection Agency, refer to the District of Columbia and insular areas of the United States—such as American Samoa and the U.S. Virgin Islands—as protectorates. However, the agency responsible for the administration of those areas, the Office of Insular Affairs within the United States Department of the Interior, uses only the term "insular area" rather than protectorate.

Joint protectorates

Notes

References

Bibliography

References

  1. Fuess, Albrecht. (1 January 2005). "Was Cyprus a Mamluk protectorate? Mamluk policies toward Cyprus between 1426 and 1517". Journal of Cyprus Studies.
  2. Reisman, W.. (1 January 1989). "Reflections on State Responsibility for Violations of Explicit Protectorate, Mandate, and Trusteeship Obligations". Michigan Journal of International Law.
  3. Bojkov, Victor D.. "Democracy in Bosnia and Herzegovina: Post-1995 political system and its functioning". Southeast European Politics 4.1.
  4. Leys, Colin. (2014). "The British ruling class". Socialist Register.
  5. Kirkwood, Patrick M.. (21 July 2016). ""Lord Cromer's Shadow": Political Anglo-Saxonism and the Egyptian Protectorate as a Model in the American Philippines". Journal of World History.
  6. (1966). "Professor Giglio, Antonelli and Article XVII of the Treaty of Wichale". The Journal of African History.
  7. Archer, Francis Bisset. (1967). "The Gambia Colony and Protectorate: An Official Handbook". Psychology Press.
  8. (1905). "The Colonization of British East Africa". Journal of the Royal African Society.
  9. Yoon, Jong-pil. (17 August 2020). "Establishing expansion as a legal right: an analysis of French colonial discourse surrounding protectorate treaties". History of European Ideas.
  10. Onah, Emmanuel Ikechi. (9 January 2020). "Nigeria: A Country Profile". Journal of International Studies.
  11. Moloney, Alfred. (1890). "Notes on Yoruba and the Colony and Protectorate of Lagos, West Africa". Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society and Monthly Record of Geography.
  12. Wick, Alexis. (2016). "The Red Sea: In Search of Lost Space". University of California Press.
  13. (12 March 2019). "Use of GIS in analyzing archaeological sites: the case study of Mycenaean Cephalonia, Greece".
  14. Dumieński, Zbigniew. (2014). "Microstates as Modern Protected States: Towards a New Definition of Micro-Statehood". Centre for Small State Studies.
  15. DORATIOTO, Francisco. (January 15, 2026). "Poder Naval e política externa do Império do Brasil no Rio da Prata (1822-1852)".
  16. BATISTA VAZ, Braz. (April 27, 2020). "Brazil and the end of the Paraguayan War: notes on military operations and diplomacy".
  17. Castro, Genesco de. (2005). "O estado independente do Acre e J. Plácido de Castro : excertos históricos".
  18. "Timeline – Story of Independence".
  19. Mullard, Saul. (2011). "Opening the Hidden Land: State Formation and the Construction of Sikkimese History". BRILL.
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  21. "Histories of the Modern Middle East".
  22. Francis Carey Owtram. (1999). "Oman and the West: State Formation in Oman since 1920". University of London.
  23. "A History of Korea: From Antiquity to the Present, by Michael J. Seth", p112
  24. Goldstein, Melvyn C.. (April 1995). "Tibet, China and the United States". The Atlantic Council.
  25. Norbu, Dawa. (2001). "China's Tibet Policy". Routledge.
  26. Lin, Hsaio-ting. (2011). "Tibet and Nationalist China's Frontier: Intrigues and Ethnopolitics, 1928–49". UBC Press.
  27. Sloane, Robert D.. (Spring 2002). "The Changing Face of Recognition in International Law: A Case Study of Tibet". Emory International Law Review.
  28. Karan, P. P.. (2015). "The Changing World Religion Map". Spriger Science.
  29. Sinha, Nirmal C.. (May 1964). "Historical Status of Tibet". Bulletin of Tibetology.
  30. "Indonesian traditional polities".
  31. "Indonesian Traditional States part 1".
  32. "Indonesian Traditional States Part 2".
  33. See the classic account on this in Robert Delavignette. ''Freedom and Authority in French West Africa''. London: Oxford University Press, (1950). The more recent standard studies on French expansion include:
    Robert Aldrich. Greater France: A History of French Overseas Expansion. Palgrave MacMillan (1996) {{ISBN. 0-312-16000-3.
    Alice L. Conklin. A Mission to Civilize: The Republican Idea of Empire in France and West Africa 1895–1930. Stanford: Stanford University Press (1998), {{ISBN. 978-0-8047-2999-4.
    Patrick Manning. Francophone Sub-Saharan Africa, 1880–1995. Cambridge University Press (1998) {{ISBN. 0-521-64255-8.
    Jean Suret-Canale. Afrique Noire: l'Ere Coloniale (Editions Sociales, Paris, 1971); Eng. translation, French Colonialism in Tropical Africa, 1900 1945. (New York, 1971).
  34. Bedjaoui, Mohammed. (1 January 1991). "International Law: Achievements and Prospects". Martinus Nijhoff Publishers.
  35. Capaldo, Giuliana Ziccardi. (1 January 1995). "Repertory of Decisions of the International Court of Justice (1947–1992)". Martinus Nijhoff Publishers.
  36. C. W. Newbury. Aspects of French Policy in the Pacific, 1853–1906. The Pacific Historical Review, Vol. 27, No. 1 (Feb., 1958), pp. 45–56
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  39. (2 July 2016). "Russian patronage over Abkhazia and South Ossetia: implications for conflict resolution". East European Politics.
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  41. (26 April 2019). "Putin's 'Passportization' Move Aimed At Keeping the Donbass Conflict on Moscow's Terms". The Moscow Times.
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  46. Kingston, A. J.. (2023). "Ottoman Empire: The Sultan's Domain". A.J. Kingston.
  47. (1963). "Studies in Christian Caucasian History". [[Georgetown University Press]].
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  49. (12 March 2020). "Notice of Finding of Failure To Submit State Plans for the Municipal Solid Waste Landfills Emission Guidelines". Environmental Protection Agency.

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