Paiwan language

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title: "Paiwan language" type: doc version: 1 created: 2026-02-28 author: "Wikipedia contributors" status: active scope: public tags: ["languages-of-taiwan", "formosan-languages"] description: "Austronesian language spoken in Taiwan" topic_path: "linguistics" source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paiwan_language" license: "CC BY-SA 4.0" wikipedia_page_id: 0 wikipedia_revision_id: 0

::summary Austronesian language spoken in Taiwan ::

::data[format=table title="Infobox language"]

Field	Value
name	Paiwan
nativename	Vinuculjan, Pinayuanan
pronunciation
states	Taiwan
ethnicity	Paiwan
speakers	L1:
date	2014
ref
familycolor	Austronesian
script	Latin script (Paiwan alphabet)
nation	Taiwan
iso3	pwn
glotto	paiw1248
glottorefname	Paiwan
map	Formosan languages 2005.png
mapcaption	Distribution of Paiwan language (dark green, south)
map2	Lang Status 80-VU.svg
mapcaption2
notice	IPA
::

| name = Paiwan | nativename = Vinuculjan, Pinayuanan | pronunciation = | states = Taiwan | region = | ethnicity = Paiwan | speakers = L1: | date = 2014 | ref = | familycolor = Austronesian | script = Latin script (Paiwan alphabet) | nation = Taiwan | iso3 = pwn | glotto = paiw1248 | glottorefname = Paiwan | map = Formosan languages 2005.png | mapcaption = Distribution of Paiwan language (dark green, south) | map2 = Lang Status 80-VU.svg | mapcaption2 = | notice = IPA

Paiwan (, ) is a native language of southern Taiwan. It is spoken as a first language by the ethnic Paiwan, a Taiwanese indigenous people, and historically as a second language by most people in southern Taiwan. Paiwan is a Formosan language of the Austronesian language family. It is also one of the national languages of Taiwan.

Dialects

Paiwan variants are seen divided into the following dialect zones by Ferrell.

• A1 – southern and central
  • Kuɬaɬau (Kulalao) _ used in Ferrell's 1982 Paiwan Dictionary due to its widespread intelligibility and preservation of various phonemic distinctions; also spoken in Tjuabar Village, Taitung County, where Tjariḍik and "Tjuabar" (closely related to Tjavuaɬi) are also spoken.
  • Kapaiwanan (Su-Paiwan)
  • Tjuaqatsiɬay (Kachirai) – southernmost dialect
• A2 – central
  • Ɬarəkrək (Riki-riki)
  • Patjavaɬ (Ta-niao-wan)
• B1 – northernmost
  • Tjukuvuɬ (Tokubun)
  • Kaviangan (Kapiyan)
• B2 – northwestern
  • Tjaɬakavus (Chalaabus, Lai-yi)
  • Makazayazaya (Ma-chia)
• B3 – east-central
  • Tjariḍik (Charilik)
• B4 – eastern
  • Tjavuaɬi (Taimali)
  • Tjakuvukuvuɬ (Naibon, Chaoboobol)

This classification were thought to be corrected by Cheng 2016 as below:

Note: A village unnoted of Vuculj/Ravar is by default placed under Vuculj here.

• Paridrayan group (Ravar)
  • Paridrayan /pariɖajan/
  • Tjailjaking
  • Tineljepan
  • Cavak
  • Tjukuvulj
• Timur group
  • Timur
  • Tavatavang
  • Vuljulju
  • Sagaran (Ravar-Vuculj mixture)
• Makazayazaya branch
  • 'ulaljuc
  • Idra
  • Masilidj
  • Makazayazaya
  • Paljulj
  • Kazangiljan
  • Masisi
  • Kazazaljan
  • 'apedang
  • Kaviyangan
  • Puljetji
  • Tjuaqau
• Eastern branch
  • Paumeli
  • Tjulitjulik
  • Viljauljaulj
  • Kaljataran
  • Ka'aluan
  • Tjua'au
  • Sapulju
  • Kingku
  • Djumulj
  • Tjukuvulj
• Tjagaraus branch
  • Payuan
  • Padain
  • Piuma
• Raxekerek branch (west)
  • Raxekerek
  • Kinaximan
  • Tjevecekadan
• Raxekerek branch (east)
  • Tjahiljik
  • Tjacuqu
  • Tjatjigelj
  • Tjaqup
  • Rahepaq
  • Kaljapitj
  • Qeceljing
  • Pacavalj
  • Kuvaxeng
  • Utjaqas
  • Ljupetj
• Tjala'avus branch
  • Tjalja'avus
  • Calasiv
  • Tjana'asia
  • Pucunug
  • Vungalid
  • Pailjus |italic=no}}

Phonology

Kuljaljau Paiwan has 23–24 consonants ( is found only in loanwords, and is uncommon) and 4 vowels. Unlike many other Formosan languages that have merged many Proto-Austronesian phonemes, Paiwan preserves most Proto-Austronesian phonemes and is thus highly important for reconstruction purposes.

The four Paiwan vowels are . is written in the literature.

::data[format=table title="Kuljaljau (Kuɬaɬau) Paiwan consonants"] | ||Labial||Alveolar||Retroflex||Palatal||Velar||Uvular||Glottal | Nasal | Plosive | voiceless | voiced | Affricate | Fricative | voiceless | voiced | Trill | Approximant | |---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | () | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | ::

::data[format=table title="Central Paiwan consonants{{Cite thesis |last=Chen |first=Chun-mei |title=A Comparative Study on Formosan Phonology: Paiwan and Budai Rukai |date=2006 |degree=Ph.D. |publisher=The University of Texas at Austin |url=http://repositories.lib.utexas.edu/bitstream/handle/2152/3758/chenc55702.pdf |language=en |hdl=2152/3758 |hdl-access=free}}"] | ||Labial||Alveolar||Retroflex||Palatal||Velar||Uvular||Glottal | Nasal | Plosive | voiceless | voiced | Affricate | Fricative | voiceless | voiced | Rhotic | Approximant | |---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | ~ | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | () | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | ~ | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | ::

In Northern Paiwan the palatal consonants have been lost, though this is recent and a few conservative speakers maintain them as allophonic variants (not as distinct phonemes). is robust, unlike in other Paiwan dialects where its status is uncertain, as it derives from *q.

::data[format=table title="Northern Paiwan (Sandimen) consonants"] | ||Labial||Alveolar||Retroflex||Palatal||Velar||Glottal | Nasal | Plosive | voiceless | voiced | Affricate | Fricative | voiceless | voiced | Trill~ Fricative | Approximant | |---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | () | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | ~ | | | | | | | | | | ::

::data[format=table title="Southern Paiwan (Mudan) consonants"] | ||Labial||Alveolar||Retroflex||Palatal||Velar||Uvular||Glottal | Nasal | Plosive | voiceless | voiced | Affricate | Fricative | voiceless | voiced | Approximant | |---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | () | | | | | | | | | ~ | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | ::

Younger speakers tend to pronounce as . Fricative is characteristic of Mudan village; elsewhere in Southern Paiwan it tends to be a trill , though it still varies . Word-initial *k has become .

Grammar

Pronouns

The Paiwan personal pronouns below are from Ferrell (1982).

::data[format=table title="Paiwan Personal Pronouns"]

Gloss	Equational	Genitive	Non-Eq., Non-Gen.	.	.
-aken, ti-aken	ku-, ni-aken	tjanu-aken
-sun, ti-sun	su-, ni-sun	tjanu-sun
ti-madju	ni-madju	tjai-madju
-itjen, ti-tjen	tja-, ni-tjen	tjanu-itjen
-amen, ti-amen	nia-, ni-amen	tjanu-amen
-mun, ti-mun	nu-, ni-mun	tjanu-mun
ti-a-madju	ni-a-madju	tjai-a-madju
::

Function words

Paiwan has three construction markers, which are also known as relational particles.

1. a – shows equational relationship; personal sing. = ti, personal plural = tia
2. nua – shows genitive / partitive relationship; personal sing. = ni, personal plural = nia
3. tua – shows that the relationship is neither equational nor genitive; personal sing. = *tjai, personal plural = tjaia

Other words include:

• i – be at, in (place)
• nu – if when
• na – already (definitely) done/doing or have become
• uri – definite future negative marker
• uri – definite future marker
• ɬa – emphasis, setting apart

Affixed adverbials include:

• -tiaw
  • nu-tiaw: tomorrow
  • ka-tiaw: yesterday
• -sawni
  • nu-sawni: soon, in a little while (future)
  • ka-sawni: a little while ago
• -ngida
  • nu-ngida: when? (future)
  • ka-ngida: when? (past)

Interjections include the following:

• ui – yes
• ini – no (not do)
• neka – no, not (not exist)
• ai – oh! (surprise, wonder)
• ai ḍivá – alas!
• uá – oh! (surprise, taken aback)
• ai ḍaḍá – ouch! (pain)

Verbs

Paiwan verbs have 4 types of focus.

1. Agent/Actor
2. Object/Goal/Patient
3. Referent: spatial/temporal locus, indirect object, beneficiary
4. Instrument/Cause/Motivation/Origin

The following verbal affixes are used to express varying degrees of volition or intent, and are arranged below from highest to lowest intention.

1. ki- (intentional)
2. pa- (intentional)
3. -m- (volitionally ambiguous)
4. si- (volitionally ambiguous)
5. ma- (non-intentional)
6. se- (non-intentional)

Paiwan verbs can also take on the following non-derivational suffixes.

• -anga: "certainly," "truly doing"
• -angata: "definitely" (emphatic)
• -anga: "still, yet, continuing to"

Affixes

The Paiwan affixes below are from the Kulalao dialect unless stated otherwise, and are sourced from Ferrell (1982).

;Prefixes

• ka-: used as an inchoative marker with some stems; past marker
• ka- -an: principal, main
• kaɬa- -an: time/place characterized by something
• ma-ka-: go past, via; having finished
• pa-ka-: go/cause to go by way of (something/place)
• ka-si-: come from
• ken(e)-: eat, drink, consume
• ki-: get, obtain
• ku-: my; I (as agent of non-agent focus verb)
• ɬa-: belonging to a given [plant/animal] category
• ɬe-: to go in the direction of
• ɬia-: (have) come to be in/at
• li-: have quality of
• ma-: be affected by, be in condition of (involuntary)
• mare-: having reciprocal relationship
• mare-ka-: in some general category
• maɬe-: number of persons
• me-: agent marker usually involving change of status (used with certain verbs)
• mere-: be gigantic, super-
• mi-: agent marker that is usually intransitive (used with certain verbs)
• mi- -an: pretend, claim
• mu-: agent marker (certain verbs)
• ka-na- -anga: every
• pa-: to cause to be/occur
• pe-: emerge, come into view
• pi-: put in/on; do something to
• pu-: have or produce; acquire
• pu- -an: place where something is put or kept
• ma-pu-: do nothing except ...
• ra-: having to do with
• r-m-a-: do at/during
• r-m-a- -an: do at/in
• sa-: wish to; go to, in direction of; have odor, quality, flavor of
• pa-sa-: transfer something to; nearly, be on point of doing
• ki-sa-: use, utilize, employ
• na-sa-: perhaps, most likely is
• san(e)-: construct, work on/in
• ki-sane(e)-: become/act as; one who acts as
• ru-: do frequently/habitually; have many of
• se-: people of (village/nation); have quality of; occur suddenly/unexpectedly/unintentionally
• s-ar-e-: be in state/condition of (involuntary)
• si-: be instrument/cause/beneficiary of; instrument focus marker; belonging to certain time in past
• ma-si-: carry, transport
• su-: your; you (agent of non-agent focus verb); leave, remove, desist from
• ki-su-: remove or have removed from oneself
• ta-: past marker
• tu-: similar to, like
• ma-ru-: be dissimilar but of same size
• tja-: our, we (inclusive); more, to a greater extent, further
• ki-tja-: take along for use
• tjaɬa- -an: most, -est
• tjara-: be definitely
• tjaɬu-: reach/extend as far as
• tjari-: furthest, utmost
• tja-u-: to have just done
• tje-: choose to do at/from
• ka-tje- -an: containing
• tji-: used mainly in plant/animal species names (non-Kulalao frozen affix)
• tji-a-: be/remain at
• tju-: do/use separately; be/do at certain place
• m-uri-: search for

;Infixes

• -aɬ-, -al-, -ar-: having sound or quality of; involving use of; non-Kulalao
• -ar-: do indiscriminately, on all sides; non-Kulalao
• -m-: agent or actor; -n- following /p/, /b/, /v/, /m/; m- before vowel-initial words
• -in-: perfective marker, action already begun or accomplished, object or product of past action; in- before vowel-initial words

;Suffixes

• -an: specific location in time/space; specific one/type; referent focus
• -en: object/goal of action; object focus
• -aw, -ay: projected or intended action, referent focus
• -u: agent focus (most subordinate clauses); most peremptory imperative
• -i: object focus (most subordinate clauses); polite imperative
• -ɬ: things in sequence; groupings; durations of time

The following affixes are from the Tjuabar dialect of Paiwan, spoken in the northwest areas of Paiwan-occupied territory (Comparative Austronesian Dictionary 1995).

;Nouns

• -aḷ-, -alʸ- 'tiny things'
• -in- 'things made from plant roots'
• -an 'place' (always used with another affix)
• mar(ə)- 'a pair of' (used for humans only)
• pu- 'rich'
• ḳay- 'vegetation'
• sə- 'inhabitants'
• cua- 'name of a tribe'

;Verbs

• -aŋa 'already done'
• ka- 'to complete'
• kə- 'to do something oneself'
• ki- 'to do something to oneself'
• kisu- 'to get rid of'
• kicu- 'to do something separately'
• maCa- 'to do something reciprocally' (where C indicates the initial consonant of the stem)
• mə- 'to experience, to be something'
• pa- 'to cause someone to do something'
• pu- 'to produce, to get something'
• sa- 'to be willing to do something'
• calʸu- 'to arrive at'

;Adjectives

• ma- 'being'
• na- 'with the quality of'
• səcalʸi- 'very'
• ca- 'more than'

Notes

References

References

1. (February 15, 2015). "Amis Remains Taiwan's Biggest Aboriginal Tribe at 37.1% of Total". [[Focus Taiwan]].
2. {{Glottolog. paiw1248. Paiwan
3. "Yuánzhùmínzú yǔyán fāzhǎn fǎ".
4. Chen, Chun-mei. (2006). "A Comparative Study on Formosan Phonology: Paiwan and Budai Rukai". The University of Texas at Austin.

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