Coptic script
Script used for writing the Coptic language
title: "Coptic script" type: doc version: 1 created: 2026-02-28 author: "Wikipedia contributors" status: active scope: public tags: ["coptic-language", "scripts-with-iso-15924-four-letter-codes", "alphabets", "writing-systems-of-africa", "ancient-egyptian-language", "coptic-orthodox-church"] description: "Script used for writing the Coptic language" topic_path: "geography/egypt" source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coptic_script" license: "CC BY-SA 4.0" wikipedia_page_id: 0 wikipedia_revision_id: 0
::summary Script used for writing the Coptic language ::
::data[format=table title="Infobox Writing system"]
| Field | Value |
|---|---|
| name | Coptic script |
| type | Alphabet |
| languages | Coptic, Blemmyan, Nubian languages |
| sample | Coptic-render.svg |
| time | 2nd century A.D. to present (in Coptic liturgy) |
| fam1 | Egyptian hieroglyphs |
| fam2 | Proto-Sinaitic |
| fam3 | Phoenician alphabet |
| fam4 | Greek script augmented by Demotic |
| children | Old Nubian |
| unicode | |
| iso15924 | Copt |
| :: |
| name = Coptic script | type = Alphabet | languages = Coptic, Blemmyan, Nubian languages | sample = Coptic-render.svg | time = 2nd century A.D. to present (in Coptic liturgy) | fam1 = Egyptian hieroglyphs | fam2 = Proto-Sinaitic | fam3 = Phoenician alphabet | fam4 = Greek script augmented by Demotic | children = Old Nubian | unicode = | iso15924 = Copt
The Coptic script is the script used for writing the Coptic language, the most recent development of Egyptian. The repertoire of glyphs is based on the uncial Greek alphabet, augmented by letters borrowed from the Egyptian Demotic. It was the first alphabetic script used for the Egyptian language. There are several Coptic alphabets, as the script varies greatly among the various dialects and eras of the Coptic language.
History
::figure[src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/58/Coptic_alphabet.jpg" caption="The Coptic alphabet" alt="ⲁⲃⲅⲇ"] ::
The Coptic script has a long history going back to the Ptolemaic Kingdom, when the Greek alphabet was used to transcribe Demotic texts, with the aim of recording the correct pronunciation of Demotic. As early as the sixth century BC and as late as the second century AD, an entire series of pre-Christian religious texts were written in what scholars term Old Coptic, Egyptian language texts written in the Greek alphabet.
In contrast to Old Coptic, seven additional Coptic letters were derived from Demotic, and many of these (though not all) are used in “true” form of Coptic writing. Coptic texts are associated with Christianity, Gnosticism, and Manichaeism.
With the spread of early Christianity in Egypt, knowledge of Egyptian hieroglyphs was lost by the late third century, as well as Demotic script slightly later, making way for a writing system more closely associated with the Coptic Orthodox Church. By the fourth century, the Coptic script was "standardized", particularly for the Sahidic dialect. (There are a number of differences between the alphabets as used in the various dialects in Coptic).
Coptic is not generally used today except by the members of the Coptic Orthodox Church to write their religious texts. All the Gnostic codices found at Nag Hammadi used the Coptic script.
The most common Coptic dialect written today as a liturgical language for the Coptic Orthodox and Coptic Catholic Churches is the Bohairic dialect.
The Old Nubian alphabet—used to write Old Nubian, a Nilo-Saharan language—is an uncial variant of the Coptic script, with additional characters borrowed from the Greek and Meroitic scripts.
Form
The Coptic script was the first Egyptian writing system to indicate vowels, making Coptic documents invaluable for the interpretation of earlier Egyptian texts. Some Egyptian syllables had sonorants but no vowels; in Sahidic, these were written in Coptic with a line above the entire syllable. Various scribal schools made limited use of diacritics: some used an apostrophe as a word divider and to mark clitics, a function of determinatives in logographic Egyptian; others used diereses over and to show that these started a new syllable, others a circumflex over any vowel for the same purpose.
The Coptic script's glyphs are largely based on the Greek alphabet, another help in interpreting older Egyptian texts, with 24 letters of Greek origin; 6 or 7 more were retained from Demotic, depending on the dialect (6 in Sahidic, another each in Bohairic and Akhmimic). In addition to the alphabetic letters, the letter ϯ stood for the syllable or .
As the Coptic script is simply a typeface of the Greek alphabet, with a few added letters, it can be used to write Greek without any transliteration schemes. Latin equivalents would include the Icelandic alphabet (which likewise has added letters), or the Fraktur alphabet (which has distinctive forms). While initially unified with the Greek alphabet by Unicode, a proposal was later accepted to separate it, with the proposal noting that Coptic is never written using modern Greek letter-forms (unlike German, which may be written with Fraktur or Roman Antiqua letter-forms), and that the Coptic letter-forms have closer mutual legibility with the Greek-based letters incorporated into the separately encoded Cyrillic alphabet than with the forms used in modern Greek. Because Coptic lowercases are usually small-caps forms of the capitals, a Greek would have little trouble reading Coptic letters, but Copts would struggle more with many of the Greek letters.
Letters
These are the letters that are used for writing the Coptic language. Coptic did not originally have case distinctions—they are a modern convention, as is the case with other classical languages like Latin.
::data[format=table] | Uppercase (image) | Lowercase (image) | Uppercase (unicode) | Lowercase (unicode) | Numeric value | Greek equiv. | Latin translit. | Sahidic pron. | Bohairic pron. | Late Coptic pron. | Greco-Bohairic pron. | [[File:Coptic Alpha-maj.svg|class=skin-invert]] | [[File:Coptic Alpha-min.svg|class=skin-invert]] | [[File:Coptic Beta-maj.svg|class=skin-invert]] | [[File:Coptic Beta-min.svg|class=skin-invert]] | [[File:Coptic Gamma-maj.svg|class=skin-invert]] | [[File:Coptic Gamma-min.svg|class=skin-invert]] | [[File:Coptic Dalda-maj.svg|class=skin-invert]] | [[File:Coptic Dalda-min.svg|class=skin-invert]] | [[File:Coptic Ei-maj.svg|class=skin-invert]] | [[File:Coptic Ei-min.svg|class=skin-invert]] | [[File:Coptic Sou.svg|class=skin-invert]] | [[File:Coptic Sou.svg|class=skin-invert|26x26px]] | [[File:Coptic Zeta-maj.svg|class=skin-invert]] | [[File:Coptic Zeta-min.svg|class=skin-invert]] | [[File:Coptic Eta-maj.svg|class=skin-invert]] | [[File:Coptic Eta-min.svg|class=skin-invert]] | [[File:Coptic Theta-maj.svg|class=skin-invert]] | [[File:Coptic Theta-min.svg|class=skin-invert]] | [[File:Coptic Iota-maj.svg|class=skin-invert]] | [[File:Coptic Iota-min.svg|class=skin-invert]] | [[File:Coptic Kappa-maj.svg|class=skin-invert]] | [[File:Coptic Kappa-min.svg|class=skin-invert]] | [[File:Coptic Laula-maj.svg|class=skin-invert]] | [[File:Coptic Laula-min.svg|class=skin-invert]] | [[Image:Coptic Me-maj.svg|class=skin-invert]] | [[Image:Coptic Me-min.svg|class=skin-invert]] | [[Image:Coptic Ne-maj.svg|class=skin-invert]] | [[Image:Coptic Ne-min.svg|class=skin-invert]] | [[Image:Coptic Kxi-maj.svg|class=skin-invert]] | [[Image:Coptic Kxi-min.svg|class=skin-invert]] | [[Image:Coptic Ou-maj.svg|class=skin-invert]] | [[Image:Coptic Ou-min.svg|class=skin-invert]] | [[Image:Coptic Pi-maj.svg|class=skin-invert]] | [[Image:Coptic Pi-min.svg|class=skin-invert]] | [[Image:Coptic Ro-maj.svg|class=skin-invert]] | [[Image:Coptic Ro-min.svg|class=skin-invert]] | [[Image:Coptic Semma-maj.svg|class=skin-invert]] | [[Image:Coptic Semma-min.svg|class=skin-invert]] | [[Image:Coptic Tau-maj.svg|class=skin-invert]] | [[Image:Coptic Tau-min.svg|class=skin-invert]] | [[Image:Coptic He-maj.svg|class=skin-invert]] | [[Image:Coptic He-min.svg|class=skin-invert]] | [[Image:Coptic Phi-maj.svg|class=skin-invert]] | [[Image:Coptic Phi-min.svg|class=skin-invert]] | [[Image:Coptic Khi-maj.svg|class=skin-invert]] | [[Image:Coptic Khi-min.svg|class=skin-invert]] | [[Image:Coptic Pxi-maj.svg|class=skin-invert]] | [[Image:Coptic Pxi-min.svg|class=skin-invert]] | [[Image:Coptic O-maj.svg|class=skin-invert]] | [[Image:Coptic O-min.svg|class=skin-invert]] | [[Image:Coptic Sai-maj.svg|class=skin-invert]] | [[Image:Coptic Sai-min.svg|class=skin-invert]] | [[Image:Coptic Fai-maj.svg|class=skin-invert]] | [[Image:Coptic Fai-min.svg|class=skin-invert]] | [[Image:Coptic Hai-maj.svg|class=skin-invert]] | [[Image:Coptic Hai-min.svg|class=skin-invert]] | [[Image:Coptic Hori-maj.svg|class=skin-invert]] | [[Image:Coptic Hori-min.svg|class=skin-invert]] | [[Image:Coptic Dandia-maj.svg|class=skin-invert]] | [[Image:Coptic Dandia-min.svg|class=skin-invert]] | [[File:Coptic Cima-maj.svg|class=skin-invert]] | [[File:Coptic Cima-min.svg|class=skin-invert]] | [[File:Coptic Ti-maj.svg|class=skin-invert]] | [[File:Coptic Ti-min.svg|class=skin-invert]] | [[File:Coptic Sampi.svg|class=skin-invert]] | [[File:Coptic Sampi.svg|class=skin-invert]] | |---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---| | 1 | Α, α | A, a | | , | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 2 | Β, β | B, b | | (final ) | (final ) seemed to have retained a intervocalically in Late Coptic. | , ( before a consonant, at the end of a word, or in a name) | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 3 | Γ, γ | G, g | (marked Greek words) | — | , ( before ⲁ, ⲟ, or ⲱ) | , (before or ), (before or ) | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 4 | Δ, δ | D, d | (marked Greek words) | — | (marked Greek words) | , ( in a name) | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 5 | Ε, ε | E, e | , ( = , ) | , ( = ) | , ( = ) | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 6 | Ϛ, ϛ (, ) | 6 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 7 | Ζ, ζ | Z, z | (marked Greek words) | — | (marked Greek words) | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 8 | Η, η | Ē, ē | | | , , | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 9 | Θ, θ | Th, th | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 10 | Ι, ι | I, i / J, j | , | , , ( = ) | , ( = ) | , (before vowels), (after vowels to form diphthongs) | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 20 | Κ, κ | C, c | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 30 | Λ, λ | L, l | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 40 | Μ, μ | M, m | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 50 | Ν, ν | N, n | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 60 | Ξ, ξ | X, x | (only in Greek loanwords) | , (usually following a consonant, or sometimes when starting a word) | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 70 | Ο, ο | O, o | ( = , ) | ( = , ) | ( = ) | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 80 | Π, π | P, p | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 100 | Ρ, ρ | R, r | ~ | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 200 | Σ, σ, ς | S, s | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 300 | Τ, τ | T, t | | | (final ) | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 400 | Υ, υ | U, u | ( = , ) | , ( = , ) | , (between "" and another vowel except ""), (after ( or ()), (digraph "") | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 500 | Φ, φ | Ph, ph | | | ~ | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 600 | Χ, χ | Ch, ch | | | | (if the word is Coptic in origin), (if the word is Greek in origin), (if the word is Greek in origin but before or ) | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 700 | Ψ, ψ | Ps, ps | | (only in Greek loanwords) | , (usually following a consonant) | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 800 | Ω, ω | Ō, ō | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | — | (none) | Ŝ, ŝ / Sh, sh | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 90 | Ϙ, ϙ (numerical value) | F, f | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | — | (none) | Ĥ, ĥ / Ch, ch | NA | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | — | (none) | | only used in Akhmimic for . No name is recorded. | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | — | (none) | H, h | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | — | (none) | Ĝ, ĝ / Dj, dj | | | and seemed to have merged in Late Coptic into one phoneme, , with intervocalically. | , (before or ) | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | — | (none) | Ĉ, ĉ / Tj, tj | | | | , (usually following a consonant) | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | — | Τι, τι | Ti, ti | | When part of the digraph , it is pronounced in Bohairic. | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 900 | Ϡ, ϡ (numerical value) | (none) | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | ::
Letters derived from Demotic
Old Coptic had a large number of Demotic Egyptian characters, including some logograms. This was reduced to seven such characters, used for sounds not covered by the Greek alphabet (plus their modern lowercase forms):
::data[format=table]
| Hieroglyph | Hieratic | Demotic | Coptic | Translit. | Late Coptic pron. | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| SA\ | → | [[File:Hieratic M8 Prisse - Möller.png | class=skin-invert | 30px]] | → | [[File:Demotic-character-š.png | class=skin-invert | x45px]] |
| f\ | → | [[File:Hieratic I9 Takelothis - Möller.png | class=skin-invert | 80px]] | → | [[File:Demotic-character-f.png | class=skin-invert | x45px]] |
| M12\ | → | [[File:Hieratic M12 Prisse - Möller.png | class=skin-invert | 30px]] | → | [[File:Demotic-character-ẖ.png | class=skin-invert | x45px]] |
| F18:Y1\ | → | [[File:Hieratic Y1-ABK Takelothis - Möller.png | class=skin-invert | 30px]] | → | [[File:Demotic-character-ḥ-2.png | class=skin-invert | x45px]] |
| U29\ | → | [[File:Hieratic U28 Golen - Möller.png | class=skin-invert | 30px]] | → | [[File:Demotic-character-ḏ-2.png | class=skin-invert | x45px]] |
| k\ | → | [[File:Hieratic V31A Elephantine - Möller.png | class=skin-invert | 80px]] | → | [[File:Demotic-character-k.png | class=skin-invert | x45px]] |
| D37:t\ | → | [[File:Hieratic D37 PRylands 2 - Möller.png | class=skin-invert | 40px]] | → | [[File:Demotic-character-ḏj.png | class=skin-invert | x45px]] |
| :: |
Numerals
Coptic numerals are an alphabetic numeral system in which numbers are indicated with letters of the alphabet, such as for 500. The numerical value of the letters is based on Greek numerals. Sometimes numerical use is distinguished from text with a continuous overline above the letters, as with Greek and Cyrillic numerals.
Unicode
Main article: Greek and Coptic, Coptic (Unicode block), Coptic Epact Numbers
In Unicode, most Coptic letters formerly shared codepoints with similar Greek letters, but a disunification was accepted for version 4.1, which appeared in 2005. The new Coptic block is U+2C80 to U+2CFF. Most fonts contained in mainstream operating systems use a distinctive Byzantine style for this block. The Greek block includes seven Coptic letters (U+03E2–U+03EF highlighted below) derived from Demotic, and these need to be included in any complete implementation of Coptic.
Diacritics and punctuation
These are also included in the Unicode specification.
Punctuation
- Latin alphabet punctuation (comma, period, question mark, semicolon, colon, hyphen) uses the regular Unicode codepoints for punctuation
- Dicolon: standard colon U+003A
- Middle dot: U+00B7
- En dash: U+2013
- Em dash: U+2014
- Slanted double hyphen: U+2E17
Combining diacritics
These are codepoints applied after that of the character they modify.
- Combining overstroke: U+0305 (= supralinear stroke)
- Combining character-joining overstroke (from middle of one character to middle of the next): U+035E
- Combining dot under a letter: U+0323
- Combining dot over a letter: U+0307
- Combining acute accent: U+0301
- Combining grave accent: U+0300
- Combining circumflex accent (caret shaped): U+0302
- Combining circumflex (curved shape) or inverted breve above: U+0311
- Combining circumflex as wide inverted breve above joining two letters: U+0361
- Combining diaeresis: U+0308
Macrons and overlines
Coptic uses to indicate syllabic consonants, for example .
Coptic abbreviations use to draw a continuous line across the remaining letters of an abbreviated word. It extends from the left edge of the first letter to the right edge of the last letter. For example, , a common abbreviation for 'spirit'.
A different kind of overline uses , , and to distinguish the spelling of certain common words or to highlight proper names of divinities and heroes. For this the line begins in the middle of the first letter and continues to the middle of the last letter. A few examples: , , .
Sometimes numerical use of letters is indicated with a continuous line above them using as in for 1,888 (where "" is 1,000 and "" is 888). Multiples of 1,000 can be indicated by a continuous double line above using as in for 1,000.
References
- Quaegebeur, Jan. 1982. "De la préhistoire de l'écriture copte." Orientalia lovaniensia analecta 13:125–136.
- Kasser, Rodolphe. 1991. "Alphabet in Coptic, Greek". In The Coptic Encyclopedia, edited by Aziz S. Atiya. New York: Macmillan Publishing Company, Volume 8. 30–32.
- Kasser, Rodolphe. 1991. "Alphabets, Coptic". In The Coptic Encyclopedia, edited by Aziz S. Atiya. New York: Macmillan Publishing Company, Volume 8. 32–41.
- Kasser, Rodolphe. 1991. "Alphabets, Old Coptic". In The Coptic Encyclopedia, edited by Aziz S. Atiya. New York: Macmillan Publishing Company, Volume 8. 41–45.
- Wolfgang Kosack: Koptisches Handlexikon des Bohairischen. Koptisch – Deutsch – Arabisch. Verlag Christoph Brunner, Basel 2013, .
References
- [https://bigenc.ru/linguistics/text/2095533 Coptic alphabet]/Great Russian Encyclopedia
- Ritner, Robert Kriech. 1996. "The Coptic Alphabet". In ''The World's Writing Systems'', edited by Peter T. Daniels and William Bright. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. 1994:287–290.
- Campbell, George L. "Coptic." Compendium of the World's Writing Systems. 2nd ed. Vol. 1. Biddles LTD, 1991. 415.
- "Coptic".
- (2002-05-08). "L2/02-205 N2444: Coptic supplementation in the BMP".
- For example: The composer's name "Dmitri Dmitriyevich Shostakovich" is Дмитрий Дмитриевич Шостакович in Cyrillic, and Ⲇⲙⲏⲧⲣⲓⲓ Ⲇⲙⲏⲧⲣⲓⲉⲃⲓϭ Ϣⲟⲥⲧⲁⲕⲟⲃⲓϭ in Coptic.
- (2010). "Die Toponyme vorarabischen Ursprungs im modernen Ägypten".
- [https://copticsounds.files.wordpress.com/2009/12/thepronunciationofcopticinthechurchofegypt.pdf Before the Greco-Bohairic reforms of the mid 19th century.]
- "The Coptic Language".
- (July 2016). "Section 7.3: Coptic, Numerical Use of Letters". The Unicode Consortium.
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